23 Palmer, T., The Trials of Oz, London: Blond and Briggs, 1971.
24 ‘More Girls in London Have VD’, The Times, 21 July 1970, p. 2.
25 Whitehouse, M., Whatever Happened to Sex? Hove: Wayland Publishing, 1977, p. 9.
26 Schofield, Promiscuity, p. 162.
27 Schofield, The Sexual Behaviour of Young People.
28 Hampshire, J., and Lewis, J., ‘“The Ravages of Permissiveness”: Sex Education and the Permissive Society’, Twentieth Century British History, 15:3, 2004, pp. 290–312.
29 Riches, Sex and Social Engineering; The Responsible Society was one of the predecessors of the Family Education Trust, see website of Family Education Trust. www.famyouth.org.uk/about.php, retrieved 11 April 2012.
30 Limond, D., ‘“I never imagined that the time would come”; Martin Cole, the Growing Up Controversy and the Limits of School Sex Education in 1970s England’, History of Education, 37:3, 2008, pp. 409–29. The film Growing Up is reproduced as part of a two-DVD set produced by the British Film Institute (BFI), entitled The Joy of Sex Education.
31 Muscutt was later reinstated. See Limond, ‘“I never imagined that the time would come”’, pp. 418–19.
32 Paul Ferris, ‘Teenage Sex/The New Dilemma’, Observer, 18 July 1971, p. 21; ‘Sex Debate Cancelled Because of Publicity’, The Times, 6 July 1971, p. 3.
33 Hoffman, Mary M., ‘Assumptions in Sex Education Books’, Educational Review, 27:3, 1975, pp. 211–220.
34 Perry, P., Your Guide to the Opposite Sex, London: Pitman, 1970, as cited in Hoffman, Your Guide, p. 216.
35 Pomeroy, W. B., Boys and Sex, cited in Hoffman, Your Guide, p. 216.
36 Hill, M., and Lloyd-Jones, M., Sex Education: The Erroneous Zone, London: National Secular Society, 1970.
37 Ibid., Introduction by Brigid Brophy, p. iv.
38 Ibid.
39 Gummer, J. Selwyn, The Permissive Society: Fact or Fantasy? London: Cassell, 1971, p. 58.
40 Ibid., p. 61.
41 There is a copy in the Archive of the National Secular Society in the Bishopsgate Institute in London.
42 Sir Brian Windeyer, address to RSA, quoted by Schofield in Promiscuity, p. 22.
43 Schofield, Promiscuity, pp. 24–5.
44 Ibid., pp. 68–9.
45 Whiting, A., ‘Would You Let Your Teenage Daughter Go to a Birth Control Clinic?’, Daily Mirror, 8 November 1963, p. 9.
46 Paul Ferris, ‘Teenage Sex/The New Dilemma’, Observer, 18 July 1971, p. 21.
47 ‘God’s Will – By Doctor in the Pill Case’, Daily Mirror, 6 March 1971, p. 5; ‘GPs in Sex Secrets Revolt’, Daily Mirror, 15 May 1974, p. 1.
48 Selwyn Gummer, The Permissive Society, p. 39.
49 Litchfield, M., and Kentish, S., Babies for Burning: The Abortion Business in Britain, London: Serpentine Press, 1974.
50 Ibid., p. 148.
51 Lewin, R., ‘Abortion – Getting the Facts Right’, New Scientist, 3 April 1975, p. 2.
52 Hansard, debates in House of Lords, 6 August 1975, vol. 363, cc. 1654–1655; debates in House of Commons, 26 July 1977, vol. 936, cc. 573–575; 22 June 1979, vol. 968, cc. 1651–1652.
53 Francome, C., Abortion Freedom: A Worldwide Movement, London: Routledge, 1984, p. 165ff; Newburn, T., Permission and Regulation: Law and Morals in Postwar Britain, London: Routledge, 1992, pp. 151–2; Diane Munday papers in Bishopsgate Institute.
54 E.g. ‘Unmarried Mothers: Some Opposing Views’, in The Times, 5 December 1966, p. 13; ‘Parents of Schoolgirl Mothers Blamed’, The Times, 11 March 1966, p. 6; ‘Campaign to Combat Teenage Pregnancies’, The Times, 28 April 1981, p. 4; ‘Anguish of the Teenage Mothers’, The Times, 18 October 1985, p. 15. ‘Concern at High Rate of Illegitimacy’, The Times, 19 August 1985, p. 3.
55 See Independent, 6 November 2011, looking back on the story of Helen Morgan’s experience, www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home–news/miss-world-who-gave-up-her-crown-returns-to-the-pageant-for-the-first-time-6258022.html, retrieved 11 April 2012.
56 E.g. Rhodes Boyson, ‘Free Contraceptives’, in The Times, 17 April 1974, p. 15.
57 Simms, M., and Smith, C., Teenage Mothers and Their Partners: A Survey in England and Wales, London: HMSO, Department of Health and Social Security Research Report no. 15, 1986.
58 Ibid., p. 8.
59 Ibid., p. 103.
60 http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/26/newsid_2499000/2499583.stm, retrieved 11 April 2012; De Cruz, S. P., ‘Parents, Doctors and Children: The Gillick Case and Beyond’, Journal of Social Welfare Law, 9:2, 1987, pp. 93–108; NSPCC Factsheet, ‘Gillick Competency and Fraser Guidelines’, December 2009, www.nspcc.org.uk/inform/research/questions/gillick_wda61289.html.
61 Weale, S., ‘“I Will Not Let It Go”’, article on Victoria Gillick, Guardian, 21 November 2000. www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/2000/nov/21/features11.g22, retrieved 11 April 2012.
62 ‘Abortion Act Threat’, Spare Rib, no. 34, 1975, p. 17. See also no. 35.
63 British edition of Our Bodies, Ourselves, edited by Phillips, A., and Rakusen, J., London: Penguin and Allen Lane, 1978.
64 Ibid., p. 558.
65 Greig, C., A Girl’s Guide to Modern European Philosophy, London: Serpent’s Tail, 2007.
66 Ibid., pp. 179–80.
67 Compare, for instance, Jeffreys, S., Anticlimax: A Feminist Perspective on the Sexual Revolution, New York: New York University Press, 1991, with Grant, Sexing the Millennium.
68 Quoted by Kira Cochrane in ‘Forty Years of the Women’s Liberation Movement’, Guardian, 26 February 2010. www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2010/feb/26/forty-years-womens-liberation.
69 De Beauvoir, S., The Second Sex, London: Cape, 1953; Friedan, B., The Feminine Mystique, London: Gollancz, 1963; Greer, G., The Female Eunuch, London: Paladin, 1971.
70 Penny, L., ‘The Female Eunuch Forty Years On’, Guardian, 27 October 2010. www.guardian.co.uk/books/booksblog/2010/oct/27/female-eunuch-40-years-on, retrieved 13 April 2012.
71 See Conservative Party Archives in Bodleian Library, CCO 20/36/4 and CCO 20/36/7. Geoffrey Howe later redrafted the Cripps Committee Report to make it more inclusive; see CRD 3/38/2. A published version of the report, written by Beryl Cooper and Geoffrey Howe, Opportunity for Women, was published by the Conservative Political Centre in September 1969.
72 House of Lords, Special Report from the Select Committee on the Anti-Discrimination Bill, London: HMSO 27 March 1973; House of Lords, Second Special Report from the Select Committee on the Anti-Discrimination Bill, Session 1972–73, London: HMSO, 18 April 1973; House of Commons, Special Report from the Select Committee on the Anti-Discrimination (No. 2) Bill, London: HMSO, 26 June 1973.
73 See Minutes of Evidence taken before Select Committee of House of Commons on Anti-Discrimination Bill, paras. 258–305, pp. 38–49.
74 See Dyhouse, Students, esp. Chapters 6, 8 and 9 for a detailed narrative and analysis of coeducation in Oxford and Cambridge colleges.
75 Walkerdine, V., ‘Sex, Power and Pedagogy’, Screen Education, no. 38, Spring 1981, pp. 14–24.
76 Ibid., p. 15.
77 Collection in author’s possession.
78 Spare Rib, October 1978, no. 75.
79 ILEA Learning Resources Branch, Anti-Sexist Resources Guide, compiled by Sue Adler and Annie Cornbleet, London: Television and Publishing Centre, Yale Press, 1984; Genderwatch! Self-Assessment Schedules for Use in Schools, devised by Kate Myers, London: SCDC Publications, 1987.
80 Sharpe, S., ‘Just Like a Girl’: How Girls Learn to Be Women, London: Penguin, 1976.
81 Wilson, A., Finding a Voice: Asian Women in Britain, London: Virago, 1978.
82 Sharpe, ‘Just Like a Girl’; compare with Joseph, J., ‘A Research Note on Attitudes to Work and Marriage of Six Hundred Adolescent Girls’, British Journal of Sociology, 12:2, 1961, pp. 176–83, and Rauta, I., and Hunt, A., Fifth Form Girls: Their Hopes for the Future, survey carried out on behalf of the Department of Education and Science, London: HMSO
, 1975.
83 Early examples of a new attention to girls were McRobbie, A., and Garber, J., ‘Girls and Subcultures’, in Hall, S., and Jefferson, T. (eds), Resistance through Rituals, London: Hutchinson, 1976; McRobbie, A., ‘Jackie: An Ideology of Adolescent Femininity’, Birmingham, Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, 1977. A version of this is now available as ‘Jackie Magazine: Romantic Individualism and the Teenage Girl’ at www.gold.ac.uk/media/jackie–magazine.pdf (retrieved 13 April 2012). Walkerdine, J., and Lucey, H., Democracy in the Kitchen; Regulating Mothers and Socialising Daughters, London: Virago, 1989. See also Dyhouse, C., ‘Adolescent Girlhood: Autonomy versus Dependence’, in Girls Growing Up in Late Victorian and Edwardian England.
84 McRobbie, ‘Jackie: An Ideology’; see note 83.
85 Radway, J., Reading the Romance: Women, Patriarchy and Popular Literature, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984; Kaplan, C., ‘The Thorn Birds: Fiction, Fantasy, Femininity’, in Burgin, V., Donald, J., and Kaplan, C. (eds), Formations of Fantasy, London: Routledge, 1986.
86 Blume, J., Forever, London: Pan Horizons, 1986 (1975).
87 Courtney Sullivan, ‘Judy Blume Showed Innocence Isn’t Forever’, www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=127482114, retrieved 13 April 2012.
88 McRobbie, A., Feminism and Youth Culture: From Jackie to Just Seventeen, Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1991.
89 Kurtz, I., ‘The Simple Secret of Successful Sex’, Cosmopolitan, August 1973, p. 111.
90 For Shocking Pink, 1979–1983, see www.thefword.org.uk/features/2011/08/shocking_pink and for 1987–1992, www.grassrootsfeminism.net/cms/node/165 (retrieved 13 April 2012).
91 Hemmings, S., (ed.), Girls Are Powerful: Young Women’s Writings from Spare Rib, London: Sheba Feminist Publishers, 1982.
92 There are too many sources to list here but see, for instance, Whyte, J., Deem, R., Kant, M., and Cruickshank, M. (eds), Girl Friendly Schooling, London: Methuen, 1985.
93 Arnot, M., and Phipps, A., ‘Gender and Education in the UK’, paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2003/4, The Leap to Equality, 2004; Arnot, M., David, M., and Weiner, G., Closing the Gender Gap: Postwar Education and Social Change, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1999.
94 Sharpe, ‘Just Like a Girl’.
95 Dyhouse, C., ‘Gaining Places: The Rising Proportion of Women Students in Universities after 1970’, in Dyhouse, Students.
96 Cashmore, Ellis, United Kingdom?: Class, Race and Gender since the War, London: Unwin Hyman, 1989, p. 194.
97 Ashworth, A., Once in a House on Fire, London: Picador, 1998.
98 Harriet Swain, interview with Andrea Ashworth, Times Higher Education Supplement, 20 March 1998.
99 See for instance, Bass, E., and Thornton, L. (eds), I Never Told Anyone: Writings by Women Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse, New York: Harper and Row, 1983; Fraser, S., My Father’s House: London: Virago, 1989; Spring, J., Cry Hard and Swim: The Story of an Incest Survivor, London: Virago, 1990. Just after this book went to press, revelations about media personality Jimmy Savile’s exploitation of young girls from the 1960s to the 1980s show just how difficult it could be for young women to speak out about sexual abuse, and to have their stories listened to and taken seriously.
100 Butler-Sloss, E., Report of the Inquiry into Child Abuse in Cleveland 1987, London: HMSO, July 1988; Bell, S., When Salem Came to the Boro, London: Pan, 1988; Campbell, B., Unofficial Secrets: Child Sexual Abuse – the Cleveland Case, London: Virago, 1988.
101 Nava, M., ‘Cleveland and the Press: Outrage and Anxiety in the Reporting of Child Sexual Abuse’, Feminist Review, 28, Spring 1988, pp. 103–21; Donaldson, L. J. and O’Brien, S., ‘Press Coverage of the Cleveland Child Sexual Abuse Enquiry: A Source of Public Enlightenment?’ Journal of Public Health Medicine, 17:11, pp. 70–6.
102 Miles Kington, ‘The Danger of Labelling Parents Guilty Until Proved Innocent’, Independent, 30 June 1988, reproduced in Nava, ‘Cleveland and the Press’.
103 Nava, ‘Cleveland and the Press’.
104 Daily Mirror, 13 April 1971, p. 5.
7 What happened to girl power?
1 The best-known history of punk is Savage, J., England’s Dreaming: Sex Pistols and Punk Rock, London: Faber, 2001. A number of local studies include material on girls and punk. See, for instance, Beesley, T., Our Generation: The Punk and Mod Children of Sheffield, Rotherham and Doncaster 1976–1985, Peterborough: Fastprint Publishing, 2009. This serves as the first volume of a trilogy, the other two titles being Out of Control, Rotherham: Days Like Tomorrow Books, 2010, and This Is Our Generation Calling, Rotherham: Days Like Tomorrow Publishing, 2010. Vols. 2 and 3 contain the most information on female punks.
2 Wolf, N., The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used against Women, London: Vintage, 1990.
3 Ibid. The claim that ‘eating disorders rose exponentially’ appears on pp. 10 and 11 of this edition.
4 Pipher, M., Reviving Ophelia; Saving the Selves of Adolescent Girls, New York: Putnam, 1994; Brumberg, J. J., The Body Project: An Intimate History of Adolescent Girls, New York: Random House, 1997.
5 Levy, A., Female Chauvinist Pigs: Women and the Rise of Raunch Culture, New York: Free Press, 2005.
6 Ibid., p. 4.
7 Ibid., pp. 6, 16 and passim.
8 Martin, Courtney E., Perfect Girls, Starving Daughters: The Frightening New Normalcy of Hating Your Body, New York: Free Press (Simon and Schuster), 2007.
9 Orbach, S., Fat Is a Feminist Issue: The Anti-Diet Guide to Permanent Weight Loss, New York, London: Paddington Press, 1978; Orbach, S., Bodies, London: Profile, 2009.
10 Durham, M. Gigi, The Lolita Effect, London: Duckworth, 2009.
11 Walter, N., Living Dolls; The Return of Sexism, London: Virago, 2010.
12 Collins, M., ‘The Pornography of Permissiveness: Men’s Sexuality and Women’s Emancipation in Mid-Twentieth Century Britain’, History Workshop Journal, 47, 1999, pp. 99–120.
13 Loncraine, R. ‘Bosom of the Nation: Page Three in the 1970s and 1980s’, in Gorji, M. (ed.), Rude Britannia, London: Routledge, 2007.
14 Jephcott, Girls Growing Up, p. 33.
15 Frazier, A., and Lisonbee, K. L., ‘Adolescent Concerns with Physique’, School Review, 58, 1950, pp. 397–405, as quoted by Hemming, James, in ‘Some Problems of Adolescent Girls’, DPhil thesis, University of London, 1957, p. 231. Copy in Bishopsgate Institute.
16 Hemming, James, ‘Some Problems of Adolescent Girls’; see also Hemming, J., Problems of Adolescent Girls, London: Heinemann, 1967.
17 Hemming, James, ‘Some Problems of Adolescent Girls’, pp. 231–4.
18 Wolf, The Beauty Myth, p. 151. For Glamour magazine’s update on the 1984 survey see www.glamour.com/health-fitness/2009/03/women-tell-their-body-confidence-secrets.
19 See, for instance, Zweiniger-Bargielowska, I., ‘The Body and Consumer Culture’ in the same author’s edited collection, Women in Twentieth Century Britain, London: Longmans, 2000.
20 Brumberg, J. J., Fasting Girls: The History of Anorexia Nervosa, New York: Vintage, 2000 (originally published Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988).
21 Crisp, A., Gowers, S., Joughin, N., McClelland, L., Rooney, B., Nielson, S., Bowyer, C., Halek, C., and Hartman, D., ‘The Enduring Nature of Anorexia Nervosa’, European Eating Disorders Review, 14, 2006, pp. 147–52, p. 147. Professor Crisp and his colleague S. G. Gowers interviewed an eighty-year-old woman with anorexia. Born in 1908, she maintained that women’s magazines in the 1920s contained many more articles on dieting than their successors in the 1980s.
22 ‘Peril of the Rich Twiggies’, Daily Mirror, 18 July 1979, p. 13.
23 Smith, T., ‘When a Teenage Girl Refuses to Eat’, The Times, 18 April 1975, p. 13; ‘Psychiatry: Anorexia Nervosa’, The Times, 4 June 1976, p. 18.
24 For instance: ‘Must My Daughter Die Like Her Twin?’, Daily Mirror, 6 August 1997, p. 20; ‘Is Ally Wasting Away?’, Daily Mirror, 7 September 1998, p. 9.
&n
bsp; 25 ‘Anorexic Mum Who Weighs Less than Her 7-Year-Old’, Daily Mirror, 8 November 2011.
26 Wolf, The Beauty Myth.
27 My thanks to Nicole Albutt, of the eating disorders charity Beat, for discussion of some of these issues: the conclusions, of course, are my own.
28 Science Report, ‘Psychiatry: Anorexia Nervosa’, The Times, 4 June 1976, p. 18.
29 Crisp et al., ‘The Enduring Nature of Anorexia Nervosa’, pp. 147–52.
30 Currin, L., Schmidt, U., Treasure, J., and Jick, H., ‘Time Trends in Eating Disorder Incidence’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 2005, pp. 132–5.
31 www.disordered-eating.co.uk/eating-disorders-statistics/anorexia-nervosa-statistics-uk.html (retrieved 14 April 2012).
32 Ibid.
33 Crisp et al., ‘The Enduring Nature of Anorexia Nervosa’, p. 151.
34 Penny, L., ‘An Aching Hunger’, Guardian, 11 March 2009, pp. 16–17.
35 Hadley Freeman, ‘We all know that the way the media judge women’s bodies is sick – but how directly this leads to eating disorders is less clear’, Guardian, 3 August 2011, p. 5.
36 There is a huge literature on women and eating disorders. See, among others, Chernin, K., The Hungry Self: Women, Eating and Identity, New York: Times Books, 1985; Bordo, S., Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture and the Body, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
37 West, P., and Sweeting, H., ‘Fifteen, Female and Stressed: Changing Patterns of Psychological Distress over Time’, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44:3, 2003, pp. 399–411; Stevenson, B., and Wolfers, J., ‘The Paradox of Declining Female Happiness’, Institute for the Study of Labour (IZA),Discussion Paper no. 4,200, May 2009. Both of these studies received a great deal of press attention.
38 Ehrenreich, B., ‘Are Women Getting Sadder?’, Huffington Post, 13 October 2009, www.huffingtonpost.com/barbara-ehrenreich/are-women-getting-sadder_b_319436.html.
39 James, O., ‘Too Much, Too Young’, Channel 4 at 25 book, British Association of Film and Television Award, http://25by4.channel4.com/chapter_14/article_4/print (retrieved 30 April 2010).
40 Hill, A., ‘After Feminism: What Are Girls Supposed to Do?’, Observer, 21 February 2010. www.guardian.co.uk/society/2010/feb/21/after-feminism-girls-supposed (retrieved 17 April 2012).
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