Faraday, Maxwell, and the Electromagnetic Field
Page 32
electricity
and Benjamin Franklin, 45
and central generation of electricity, 120
and the concept of the electromagnetic field, 17
conductors of, 290n2
and continuous currents, 47, 74
and curl, 221
devices for storing electricity, 22–23
and electromagnetic waves, 207
Experimental Researches in Electricity (Faraday), 78, 82, 91, 96, 111
and Faraday's law of induction, 110
Faraday's theories, 278n15, 280n5
and filament light bulbs, 120
and frequency of oscillation, 15
Heaviside on Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (Maxwell), 288n1
and iron filings, 43
known sources of electricity, 81–82
Maxwell's equations, 286n8
Oersted's writings, 276n4
as particles, 185–190
properties of, 17
static electricity, 22, 92
storage of, 45
and the telegraph, 113
and the “versorium,” 42–43
electric lighting, 113, 261
electric motor, 11, 59, 74–75, 112–113, 163, 207, 209, 261
electric pole, 86. See also electrode
Electric Waves: Being Researches on the Propagation of Electric Action with Finite Velocity through Space (Hertz), 290n4
electrochemistry, 48, 85–87, 274n11
electrode, 86
electrodynamics, 241, 265–266, 286n6, 290n7, 291n11
electrolysis, 12, 82, 84, 86–88
electrolyte, 86–88
electromagnetic fields, 203, 206, 210, 221, 232, 240–241, 261–269
“Electromagnetic Induction and Its Propagation” (Heaviside), 289n10
electromagnetic machines, 112, 134
electromagnetic momentum, 191, 206, 208–210, 284n5
electromagnetic waves
detection of, 13, 251
and displacement currents, 197, 205, 210
in empty space, 219–220, 253
Maxwell's prediction of, 194
moving at the speed of light, 204, 248
proof of existence, 16
spectrum of, 17
electromagnetism
Ampère's theory of, 53
contributions of John Henry Poynting, 231, 249
Faraday's experimentation with, 67
and Faraday's law of induction, 110
Heaviside's experimentation and equations, 246–251
Maxwell's equations, 223
Maxwell's theory of, 12, 166, 218–219, 269
electromotive force, 185, 190–192, 194, 207, 255, 279n15
electron, 13, 83, 210, 228, 263–264
electroscope, 42
electrostatic generator, 90, 97
electrostatics, study of, 88–90, 96, 191–194, 196, 209, 219
electroweak force, 101, 291n13
Elephant and Castle, London, 20
Elgin Marbles, 121
Elizabeth I, Queen, 41
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 22, 233
English Channel, 113, 120, 257
Enlightenment, the, 135
Epsom salts, 23, 26, 274n6
equivalent mass (or weight), 82, 268, 277n8, 287n3
Eric, or Little by Little (Farrar), 151
Eton College, 36, 140
Euclid, 121, 143
Europe, 29, 35, 61, 67, 275n1, 275n7
European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), 271
Everitt, C. W. Francis, 9, 165
Falcon Glass Works, 63
Faraday, Elizabeth, 20
Faraday, James, 19–20
Faraday, Margaret (mother), 20
Faraday, Margaret (sister), 20
Faraday, Michael
bookbinding apprenticeship, 20–21
courtship and marriage, 55–57
develops ideas on electrical induction and electric lines of force, 88
discovers diamagnetism, 100–101
discovers dynamo effect, 74–75
discovers electric motor effect, 58–59
discovers electromagnetic induction, 74–76
discovers Faraday rotation in magneto-optics, 98–99
discovers laws of electrolysis, 82–83
early work in chemistry, 38–40
Experimental Researches in Electricity, 91, 96, 100, 109–111
explains diamagnetism using concept of magnetic lines of force, 108–109
first job at Royal Institution, 28–29
first uses the term magnetic field, 100–101
forbears, 19–20
gives “Ray-vibrations” lecture, 101–103
Grand Tour of Europe with Davy, 30–36
home experiments, 22–23, 27
introduces idea of magnetic lines of force, 77–79
last days, 123–125
“On Some New Electromagnetic Motions and the Theory of Electromagnetism,” 60
“On the Action of Magnets by Light,” 101
shows all types of electricity are the same, 81–85
“The Analysis of Caustic Lime of Tuscany,” 37
“Thoughts on Ray-vibrations,” 104, 278n5
work on optical glass, 63–64
Faraday, Robert, 20
Faraday, Sarah, 55–56, 63, 92, 123, 276n2, 276n4
Faraday cage, 90
Farrar, Frederic William, 151
Fawcett, William, 227
ferromagnetism, 107
Feynman, Richard P., 241, 266, 287–288, 290n7
fields
electric fields, 161
electromagnetic fields, 203, 206, 210, 221, 232, 240–241, 261–269
magnetic fields, 111, 157, 161, 163, 164–165, 194, 263
See also lines of force
fish-eye lens, 144
Fitzgerald, George Francis
and aether, 210
on Heaviside's achievements, 288n4
Heaviside's tribute to, 289n15
and interpretation of Maxwell's theory, 262
letter to J. J. Thomson, 289n16
and the Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction, 270
mechanical model of, 267–268
thoughts on Hertz, 257
thoughts on Maxwell, 246, 250–252
Fizeau, Armand-Hippolyte-Louis, 195, 219
Fleming, Ambrose, 231, 260, 279n15
Florence, 33–34
flux, 159, 184. See also induction; lines of force
flux density, 159, 161, 211, 282n9
Forbes, James, 133, 135–137, 139–140, 166, 178, 224
Forfar, David O., 218n2
Forster, Edward Morgan, 145
France, 29–35, 46
Franklin, Benjamin, 11, 44–46
Fredericia, Denmark, 243
Fresnel, Augustin, 54
Friday Evening Discourses, 62, 101, 124, 182
Galileo, 24, 42–43
Galloway, 127–128, 130, 213, 234
Galton, Francis, 148
Galvani, Luigi, 47
galvanometer, 71–74, 105, 122
Garnett, William, 236–237
gases, magnetic properties of, 107
Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 164
Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis, 32–33, 48
Geissler, Heinrich, 112
gelatin, 139
General Medical Council, 231
Genesis, Book of, 218
Geneva, 34–35
Genoa, 33
Genoa University, 107
Germany, 36, 57, 253, 256–257
Gibbs, Josiah Willard, 12, 234, 242, 247, 259
Gilbert, William, 11, 41–45, 275n1
Gilbert Street, London, 20
Gill, David, 177, 212, 283n10, 286n10
glaciers, 137
Gladstone, John Hall, 104
Glasgow, 172, 225, 227
Glasgow University, 96, 155, 169, 172, 231, 286n5
glass
electrical or m
agnetic properties of, 22, 34, 44–45, 53, 66–70, 97–100, 160, 199, 263
optical properties of, 63–64, 199, 256
Glazebrook, Richard, 231, 284n7
Glenlair, 127–131, 133–139, 156, 166–168, 236–239, 287n4
Goldsmith, Oliver, 155
governor, 25, 283n9
gradient, 160–161, 221–222, 281n5
graphite, 34
gravity, 45–47, 49, 53, 101–103, 121–122, 197, 271, 280n5
Greece, 35
Greek, 33–41, 143–144, 147, 170, 224
Green, George, 164
Gregory, professor of chemistry, 135
Grossmann, Marcel, 84
Grothuss, Theodor, 84
Grove, William Robert, 286n6
gutta percha, 113
Hachette, J. N. P., 79–80
Hadron Collider, 271
Hamburg, 253
Hamilton, William, 135–137, 151, 158
Hamilton, William Rowan, 222, 224, 247, 285n5
Hamiltonian, 281n5, 285n5
Hampton Court, 123–124, 182
Hardy, Geoffrey Harold, 145
Harman, Peter M., 273, 282n4, 284n1
Harrow School, 140, 151, 238
“Has Everything Beautiful in Art Its Original in Nature?” (Maxwell), 145
heat, 35. See also thermodynamics
Heaviside, Oliver
achievements in condensing Maxwell's theory, 288n4
and action at a distance, 290n20
compared himself to “Old Teufelsdröckh,” 288n2
at the Danish-Norwegian-English Telegraph Company, 243
early life, 242–243
in the Electrician, 288n3
“Electromagnetic Induction and Its Propagation,” 289n10
eulogy of Maxwell, 287n5
and the formula for energy flow, 289n12
on Helmholtz's theory, 289n19
and his reformulation of Maxwell's theory, 289n10
letters of, 288n1, 289n18
as a “Maxwellian,” 240
and Maxwell's equations, 221–224, 247–250, 253–257, 266
and the relativistic factor, 267
tribute to Fitzgerald, 289n15
and work on electricity, 244–247, 263
Heisenberg, Werner, 265
Helmholtz, Hermann von
ennobling of, 289n17
experiments of, 254–257
on Faraday, 83
interests of, 253–254
lecture of, 280n15
quotes of, 277n9
tribute to Faraday, 126
Hertz, Heinrich
awarded Rumford Medal, 257
death of, 259
detects electromagnetic waves in free space, 253–254
early life, 253
Electric Waves: Being Researches on the Propagation of Electric Action with Finite Velocity through Space (Hertz), 290n4
experiments of, 253–257
letters of, 289n18
proved the existence of electromagnetic waves, 16
and shortwave radio waves, 17
at the Technische Hochschule in Karlsruhe, 16
Higgs, Peter, 285n14
Higgs Boson, 271, 285n14
Highgate Cemetery, London, 125
Hirshfeld, Alan, 275n14
Hockin, Charles, 219, 289n9
Holland, 36, 45. See also Dutch
Holy Roman Empire, 25
Hopkins, William, 148–151, 281n4
Hotel des Princes, Paris, 17, 31
Hume, David, 135
Huxley, Thomas Henry, 233
Huxtable, John, 274n9
Hyde Park, London, 182
hydrochloric acid, 26
hydrostatics, 107
Iceland Spar, 97, 138
“Illustrations of the Dynamical Theory of Gases” (Maxwell), 176
Improvement of the Mind, The (Watts), 21, 274n4, 274n5
Indian Rebellion of 1857, 151
inductance, 245
induction
acoustic, 70
electrical, 81, 88, 96, 114, 192
electromagnetic, 74–75, 79, 122, 279n14, 289n10, 289n12
electrostatics, study of, 89–90
Faraday's law of, 110, 187
general, 90–91, 109
magneto-electric, 76
volta-electric, 76
See also flux
inductive capacity
electrical, 161, 192
magnetic, 161, 164, 185
Industrial Revolution, 20
information theory, 220
Institut de France (Institut Impérial de France from 1860), 29, 275n8
interferometer, 266
iodine, 33
ion, 86, 96, 277n10
Irish Sea, 113–114
iron
Earth formed from magnetic iron ore, 42
Faraday's experimentation with, 58–59, 69–79, 137–138
and ferromagnetism, 107
and frog-leg experiment, 47
inductive capacity of, 185
and magnetic fields, 161
named paramagnetic by Faraday, 101
and permanent iron magnets, 54, 183
and reverse polarity, 105
iron filings, 43–44, 77–78, 89, 104, 161, 163
iron ore, 42
“Is Autobiography Possible?” (Maxwell), 145, 286n3
Jacobins, 54
Jenkin, Fleeming, 199–200
Jerden, William, 79–80, 277n4
Jesus College, Cambridge, 227
jet, 41
Journal of the American Academy of Sciences (journal), 287n5
Jupiter, 266
kaleidophone, 69
Kant, Immanuel
Critique of Pure Reason, 48
Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science, 49
and theory of attraction and repulsion, 49–57
and theory of force, 136
Karlsruhe Technische Hochschule, 16, 253, 254
Kelland, Philip, 135
Kelvin. See Thomson, William (Baron Kelvin of Largs)
Kemp, lecturer in practical chemistry, 135
Kennelly, Arthur, 290n3
Kensington, London, 124, 182, 199, 213
Kensington Gardens (London), 182
Kent, 56
Kerr effect, 100
Kiel University, 254
kinetic theory of gases, 175–179, 198–199, 212
King's College, Aberdeen, 178
King's College, London, 124, 150, 195, 199, 212, 225, 284n1, 285n14
Kirkpatrick Durham, 132, 236
Kleist, Ewald von, 11
Knochenhauer spirals, 15, 154
Kodak Research Laboratories, 284n2
Kohlrausch, Rudolf, 195, 219
Kuhn, Thomas, 212
Lagrange, Joseph Louis, 47, 151, 205
Lake District, 166
Langham Hotel, London, 257
Langley, Samuel Pierpoint, 233
Laplace, Pierre Simon, 47, 151, 161, 172
Laplacian, 281n5
Larmor, Joseph, 263–264, 288n2
“La théorie de Lorenz et le principe de reaction” (Poincaré), 291n9
Latin, 42, 121, 170
laughing gas. See nitrous oxide
Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent, 26, 46
Lawson, William Norton, 149, 281n3, 281n6
lead borate, 63, 98
lead oxide, 63
left-hand rule for electric motors, 279n15
Légion d'Honneur, 124
Lehrer, Tom, 134
Leighton, Robert, 287–288, 290n7
Leipzig, 84, 105
Le Lycée (magazine), 79
Leyden, 45
Leyden jar, 45, 81, 111, 114, 233, 252
Liberal Party, 224
light
electromagnetic theory of, 194–195, 203–204, 211–219, 289n9
general, 17
speed of, 17, 194–195, 209, 248, 267–269
waves, 24, 194, 256
S
ee also polarized light
light bulb, filament type, 113
lighthouses, 92, 95, 120, 199, 280n2
lightning, 45, 90, 252, 289n13
lightning protection, 45, 252, 289n13
lightning rods, 45
lines of force
electric, 96–97, 114, 156, 160, 192, 207, 278n14
gravitational, 102–103, 116, 122, 171
magnetic, 75–80, 100, 105–108, 110, 185–186, 279n12
See also flux
liquefaction of gases, 95
Litchfield, Richard Buckley, 151, 282n11
Literary Gazette (magazine), 79
lithium, 123
Liverpool, 249–250, 253, 256
lodestone, 42
Lodge, Oliver, 210, 249–253, 255–262, 266–268, 289n14
London, 20, 25–26, 33
London Bridge, 20
London University, 64, 181
Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon, 13, 120, 263–264, 267–269, 291n10
Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction, 267
Lorentz transformation, 268
Lorraine, Dr., 238
Louvre, 36
Lovelace, Ada, 115
Lucasian Chair of Mathematics, Cambridge, 147
luminiferous aether. See aether
Lyons, 33
MacAlister, Donald, 231
Mach, Ernst, 120
magnesia, 23
magnesium oxide, 23
magnesium sulfate, 23, 48
magnetic action, 50, 81, 285n9
magnetic fields, 111, 157, 161, 163, 164–165, 194, 263
magnetic fluids, 103
magnetic flux, 159, 164, 186, 190, 207, 279n13, 284n4
magnetic poles
and diamagnetics, 104
and magnetic lines of force, 44, 159, 183, 278n14
questioning the existence of, 110
and theories of action at a distance, 83–84, 108
theory of, 66
magnetic resonance imaging, 123
magnetic shell, 162–163
magnetic vector potential, 246, 284n5, 288n5
magnetism
Ampère's experimentation with, 53–55
and the behavior of flames, 107
and curl, 221, 248
and divergence (div), 248
effect of magnetism on light, 123, 138
and electricity, 70–81
Faraday's experimentation with, 53, 58–59, 65–68
and induction, 70–81
and Kant's theory of matter, 49
Maxwell's experimentation with, 156–166
and Maxwell's manifesto, 183–184
Oersted's experimentation with, 50–51
Weber's experimentation with, 105–106
William Gilbert's experiments, 41–43
Wollaston's experimentation with, 53
magneto-electric generator, 119. See also dynamo; electric generator
magnets
coil, 65–68
and Faraday's magneto-optic experiment, 97–100
and ferromagnetism, 107
and the first dynamo, 74–75
and the first electric motor, 58–59
and lines of force, 77–78, 279n16
north and south poles of, 54