War by Other Means
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Choucair, Mohammad, 72
Christopher, Warren, 17, 251
Churchill, Winston, 251
CITIC, 45
Clayton, Blake, 65, 285nn107
Climate change, 218–219, 237
Clinton, Bill/Clinton administration, 3, 82, 173–174, 196–197
Clinton, Hillary, 7–8, 25, 37, 185, 187, 231, 251–252
Cobden, Richard, 32, 262n6
Coca-Cola, 63
COCOM, 163, 164, 167, 169, 173
Cohen, Benjamin, 30
Cohen, Stephen, 30
Cold War, 33, 34, 163, 164–173, 176–177, 253
Columbia: energy industry in, 208; geoeconomics of, 34; Pacific Alliance with, 242
Commission on Foreign Economic Policy, 3, 164
Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States (CFIUS), 57
Committee on International Economic Policy, 169
Commodities policies: as geoeconomic instruments, 85–87, 90, 147–148, 150
Common Sense (Paine), 154–155
Comprehensive Iran Accountability, Sanctions, and Divestment Act of 2010, 198
Constant, Benjamin, 19
Cook Islands: PALM participation by, 110
Cooley, Alexander, 85
Cooper, Richard, 153–154
Correa, Rafael, 40
Costa Rica: Chinese investment in, 56, 84
Cox, Jeff, 292n191
Crimea: Russian relations with, 5, 46, 210, 223
Cross-Strait Services Trade Agreement, 101
Crowdstrike, 68
Cuba: Angola civil war involvement of, 170; sanctions against, 59, 196
Curtis, Peter Theo, 72
Cyberattacks: Chinese geoeconomics involving, 60, 61–63, 65, 68, 101–102, 109–110, 136, 191–192; detection and attribution of, 62, 67; as geoeconomic instrument, 29, 34, 47, 59–68, 101–102, 109, 136, 191–192, 225–226, 237–239, 282–283n72, 285–286n111; motives for, 62, 66, 67–68; nongeoeconomic, 60–61; responses to, 66–68; Russian geoeconomics involving, 60, 61, 65, 67, 191–192; scope and costs of, 63–64, 65–66, 67; sectors targeted for, 29, 34, 47, 63, 64–65; U.S. foreign policy in relation to, 225–226, 237–239; U.S. geoeconomics involving, 47, 60, 61–63, 64–68, 191–192, 225–226, 237–239, 285–286n111
Cyprus: energy industry in, 205; EU bailout of, 80, 83, 133; Russian bailout of, 5, 39, 132, 133, 260–261n15
Dadkhah, Kamran, 40
Dalai Lama, 4, 129–130
Dale, Reginald, 33
Davies, Martyn, 41, 140
Democratic Republic of the Congo: economic assistance to, 201, 242
Deng Xiaoping, 78
Denmark: Chinese geoeconomics impacting, 129; U.S. geoeconomics impacting, 157
de Pontet, Philippe, 56
Destler, I. M., 169, 176–177
Dickinson, Elizabeth, 132, 133
Di Dongshen, 143
Dieteret, Jeff, 208
Dimian, Hany, 242
Dobson, Alan, 21, 22, 23, 36, 160, 169, 170
“Dollar diplomacy,” 152, 153, 158
Domestic market features, 89–90, 134–135, 136, 149–150
Dow, 214
Draper Report, 220
Dreier, David, 240
Drezner, Dan, 221
DuPont, 63
Du Yu, 101
Dyer, Geoff, 78
Earle, Edward Mead, 32
Eastern Partnership, 51, 52–53
Economic and Technical Cooperation Agreement, 118
Economic assistance: Chinese geoeconomics using, 70, 73–74, 102–104, 118, 125–126, 138–141, 200; as geoeconomic instrument, 5, 29–30, 68–74, 102–104, 110, 118, 122, 125–126, 132–133, 138–141, 162–164, 166, 200–201, 239, 240, 242–245, 288n151, 339nn75–76; humanitarian aid as, 29–30, 68–74, 110, 118; military aid as, 29–30, 68–74, 122, 163; U.S. geoeconomics using, 69, 70, 72, 118, 122, 125, 162–164, 166, 200–201, 239, 240, 242–245, 339nn75–76
Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement (ECFA), 97, 98
Economic Policy Board, 170
Economic sanctions. See Sanctions
Economic Statecraft (Baldwin), 22–23
Ecuador: geoeconomics of, 39, 40
Egypt: economic assistance to, 5, 69, 71–72, 200–201, 239, 240, 339nn75–76; energy policies in, 6, 85, 90; financial and monetary policy impacting, 81; global market changes impacting, 38; Gulf countries’ investment in, 5, 28, 39, 71–72, 81, 88, 132, 200–201; Middle East peace process and, 194, 200–201; U.S. Arab Spring response in, 195–196, 239, 240, 241, 248, 252; U.S. trade policy with, 50
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 3, 163–164, 326n46
Eizenstat, Stu, 172
el-Sissi, Abdel Fattah, 71
Embargoes: Russian geoeconomics using, 50; U.S. geoeconomics using, 27, 59, 121, 155–156, 157–158, 163–164, 171–172, 173–174, 267n44
Embraers, 41–42
Emergency Petroleum Allocation Act, 175
Energy industry: Chinese geoeconomics related to, 42–43, 44–46, 53–54, 85–86, 87, 90, 103, 118–119, 131, 137, 147–148, 149–150, 183, 207, 212–213, 218, 236, 314n6, 323nn119–120, 342n36; contracts in, bolstering autocratic regimes, 45–46; cyberattacks related to, 62, 63, 64–65; diplomatic and market changes impacting, 42–43; energy policies as geoeconomic instruments, 85–87, 90, 103, 147–148, 150, 175, 201–202, 217–219; geoeconomic instruments unavailable to Western countries impacting, 40–41; geopolitically motivated deals related to, 44–45; global market changes in, 38, 42–43; investment policy related to, 43, 44–46, 53–54; North American energy revolution, 16, 38, 90, 201–202, 204–219, 235–236, 342n36, 343–344n50; oil crisis in, 169, 171, 175, 212; Pacific Energy Zone in, 236; Russia geoeconomics related to, 4–5, 38, 40, 42, 54, 59, 85–87, 90, 147, 150, 167, 206, 208, 209–210, 212–213, 217–218, 235, 236, 323nn119–120; sanctions impacting, 58, 199, 216, 343–344n50; state capitalist investments in, 36, 131, 147–148, 183; Strategic Petroleum Reserve in, 236; U.S. geoeconomics related to, 16, 38, 86, 90, 167, 175, 201–202, 204–219, 235–236, 316n35, 342n36, 343–344n50
Epsilon, 63
Estonia: Russian cyberattacks against, 61
Ethiopia: Chinese relations with, 44; Italian invasion of, 36; U.S. assistance to, 46
Eurasia Group’s African Practice, 56
Eurasian Union: energy policies and, 85–86; Russian coercive geoeconomics for, 5, 34, 50, 70
European Bank of Reconstruction and Development, 195, 241
European Union: coercive geoeconomics response of, 41; cyberattack response in, 238–239; Eastern Partnership with, 51, 52–53; economic assistance by, 5, 242; energy policy in, 5, 6, 86–87, 209–210, 217, 236; eurozone crisis in, 21, 77, 80, 144, 294n202, 294n206; financial and monetary policy in, 76–77, 80–81, 82–83, 294n204; geoeconomic consequences of formation of, 28; global market changes impacting, 37–38; Russian strategies to fracture ties in/with, 5, 39, 50–53, 69–70, 133; sanctions by, 36, 58, 132, 197, 199–200, 234–235, 337–338nn67–68; trade policy in, 51, 153; Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership in, 153, 180–181, 184–185, 190–191, 217, 223, 229–230, 236, 238. See also specific countries
Eurozone crisis, 21, 77, 80, 144, 294n202, 294n206
Export Control Act, 168
Export-Import Bank, 3, 159, 187, 249
Exxon, 36
Facebook, 136
Feldstein, Martin, 209
Fiji: PALM participation by, 110
Financial and monetary policy: ability to impact another country’s borrowing costs in, 80–85, 144–147, 192; ability to raise funds at low cost in, 80; centrality to global financial system and, 90–92, 150–151; Chinese geoeconomics involving, 78–80, 82–84, 100, 109, 120, 136–137, 141–147, 150–151, 181–182, 318n64, 321n100; exchange rates in, 76, 100, 141, 145, 168–169, 192, 193; as geoeconomic instruments, 74–85, 90–92, 100, 109, 120, 136–137, 141–147, 150–151, 168–169, 181–182, 188–189, 192–193, 291n181, 292n184, 293n192, 294n204, 318n64, 321–322n100,
333n14, 347n32; global footprint of country’s currency in, 76–80, 90–91, 141–142, 193; gold standard in, 169, 291n181; reserve currency in, 78–79, 80–81, 83–84, 120, 136–137, 142–144, 181–182, 291n181, 292n184; U.S. geoeconomics involving, 75, 77–80, 82–85, 90–92, 144–147, 168–169, 182, 188–189, 192–193, 321–322n100, 333n14
Financial crisis of 1997–1998 in Asia, 54, 82, 144
Financial crisis of 2008–2009, 21, 37, 117, 207
Financial sanctions. See Sanctions
Finland: U.S. geoeconomics impacting, 157
Ford, Gerald, 170
Foreign policy: Chinese (see Chinese foreign policy); ends or objectives of, 26–27; foreign economic policy distinction from, 30, 153–154, 266n36; U.S. (see U.S. foreign policy)
Foreign Policy, 25
Fortescue Metals Group Ltd., 63
Forum Energy, 148
France: Chinese geoeconomics impacting, 95–96; geoeconomics of, 26, 36, 199; U.S. geoeconomics impacting, 155, 158, 159–160, 223, 338n69
Franklin, Benjamin, 154, 157
Friedman, Milton, 177
Fumio Kishida, 73
Gambia: Chinese geoeconomics impacting, 96, 140, 280n51
Gates, Robert, 175
Gavin, Francis J., 22, 26
Gazprom, 42, 54, 59, 85, 86, 210, 213
“GDP Now Matters More than Force” (Gelb), 33
Gelb, Leslie, 11, 33, 179
Gelpern, Anna, 55–56, 81
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, 245
General Electric, 63
GeoEconomica, 57
Geoeconomic instruments: boycotts as, 107, 108–109, 110, 158; centrality to global financial system as, 90–92, 150–151; cyberattacks as, 29, 34, 47, 59–68, 101–102, 109, 136, 191–192, 225–226, 237–239, 283n72, 285–286n111; domestic market features in, 89–90, 134–135, 136, 149–150; economic assistance as, 5, 29–30, 68–74, 102–104, 110, 118, 122, 125–126, 132–133, 138–141, 162–164, 166, 200–201, 239, 240, 242–245, 288n151, 339nn75–76; embargoes as, 27, 50, 59, 121, 155–156, 157–158, 163–164, 171–172, 173, 267n44; energy and commodities policies as, 85–87, 90, 103, 147–148, 150, 175, 201–202, 217–219; evaluating effectiveness of, 134–151; financial and monetary policy as, 74–85, 90–92, 100, 109, 120, 136–137, 141–147, 150–151, 168–169, 181–182, 188–189, 192–193, 291n181, 292n184, 293n192, 294n204, 318n64, 321–322n100, 333n14, 347n32; geoeconomic endowments as, 11, 28, 87–92, 148–152; humanitarian aid as, 29–30, 68–74, 110, 118; investment policy as, 27, 28, 34, 36, 39, 40, 43–46, 53–58, 87–89, 97, 99, 101, 104–105, 115–117, 119–120, 125, 132–133, 134–138, 148–149, 191, 227, 241, 242–245, 249, 269n20, 274n55, 279n39, 279–280nn44–46; leading, 10–11, 49–92; loans as, 3, 28, 34, 40, 45, 73–74, 79–85, 118, 125, 139–140, 144–147, 159–160, 162, 166, 192, 195, 248–249, 275n60; North American energy revolution sharpening, 216–219; overview of, 49; sanctions as, 36, 58–59, 66, 67, 78–79, 90, 91, 96, 105–106, 109, 132, 136, 138, 143–144, 152, 155–156, 189–190, 192, 196–200, 211–212, 216, 222, 223, 234–235, 244–245, 249, 267n44, 337–338nn67–68, 343–344n50; structural limitations of, 191–202; successful use of, 27–28; trade policy as, 5, 12, 27, 50–53, 97–98, 101, 107–109, 112–113, 115, 119–120, 131, 134–138, 153, 154–157, 161–162, 164, 165–166, 168–170, 173, 175–177, 180–185, 188, 189, 190–191, 217, 223, 228, 229–231, 235–236, 238, 240, 245–246, 276–277n10, 277n19, 293n201, 326n46, 330n101, 333n14; use of tools unavailable to Western countries, 40–41
Geoeconomics: backfires in, 12, 133–134, 138, 153; borderline or hybrid cases of, 28–30; Chinese (see Chinese geoeconomics); coercive vs. positive, 27, 34, 41, 50–52, 73, 86–87, 131; definition and description of, 1, 8–9, 19–32, 261n2, 264n23; evaluating effectiveness of, 129–151; foreign economic policy, mercantilism, and liberal economic thought distinction from, 30–32, 153–154, 177, 266n36; foreign policy ends in relation to, 26–27 (see also Foreign policy); geoeconomic instruments in (see Geoeconomic instruments); geopolitics distinction from, 23–25, 265n28; international system and, 9–10, 33–48, 269n15; military power vs. (see Military power and actions); study of impacts of, 21–23, 265n25; United States’ (see U.S. geoeconomics)
Geopolitics: definition and description of, 24; geoeconomics distinction from, 23–25, 265n28
George (king), 83
Georgia: Russian relations with, 5, 35, 46, 50, 60, 210
Germany: geoeconomics of, 26, 28, 76–77, 82, 223, 243; Iranian relations with, 211; U.S. geoeconomics impacting, 2–3, 157, 158–159
Gerry, Elbridge, 154
Ghana: economic assistance to, 242
Gheorghiu-Dej, Gheorghe, 165
Gilpin, Robert, 31–32, 172
Global Financial Centres Index, 53
Goldman Sachs, 208
Google, 62, 136
Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC), 89
Gray, John, 188
Great Britain. See United Kingdom
Greece: Libyan investment in, 56; Russian bailout of, 5, 39, 132
Grewal, David, 145, 177
Grey of Fallodon, Viscount, 157
Guinea: geoeconomics of, 39, 40
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), 37, 71–72, 132–133, 200–201, 241
Gulf countries: economic assistance by, 5, 71–72, 200–201; energy industry in, 210–213; investment policy in, 28, 34, 39, 53, 56–57, 88, 132–133; state capitalism among, 37; U.S. foreign policy challenges with geoeconomics of, 224–225; U.S. geoeconomics impacting, 188–189, 239–242. See also specific countries
Hagel, Chuck, 123
Haiti: U.S. geoeconomics impacting, 159
Hamas, 132
Hamilton, Alexander, 83, 155, 157
Helms, Jesse, 196
Hermitage Capital, 42
He Yafei, 96
Hezbollah, 69, 140
Hinsley, Harry, 32
Hitachi Metals, 107–108
Hitler, Adolf, 160
Hodler, Roland, 138
Hu Jintao, 41, 139, 272n40
Hull, Cordell, 161
Humanitarian aid, 29–30, 68–74, 110, 118
Hungary: Russian bailout of, 39, 132
Huntington, Samuel P., 171, 179
Huntsman, Jon, 96
Hu Shisheng, 123
Iceland: U.S. geoeconomics impacting, 157
IHS, 214
India: “Act East” initiative of, 5; Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank absence of, 115; Chinese geoeconomics related to, 94, 120–128, 313n237; domestic market features in, 149; economic assistance by, 118; economic assistance to, 71, 126; energy policies/consumption in, 90, 207, 212, 213, 342n36; geoeconomics in foreign policy of, 5, 126–127; Indo-Pacific Economic Corridor, 127, 233; sanctions against Iran impacting, 58; U.S. geoeconomics impacting, 121–123, 232–234
Indonesia: Chinese geoeconomics impacting, 113, 114, 117; energy industry in, 208
Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC), 41, 45
International Atomic Energy Agency, 199
International Finance Corporation, 243
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 4, 39, 53, 81, 107, 126, 142, 187, 224, 226, 249
International system: contracts bolstering autocratic regimes in, 45–46; diplomatic and market changes in, 41–43; factors for geoeconomic resurgence in, 9, 33–38; geoeconomic instruments unavailable to Western countries in, 40–41; geoeconomics changing, 9–10, 38–48; geopolitically motivated deals impacting foreign policy in, 43–45; global market changes in, 37–38, 42–43; policy choices enabled in, 39–40; rising powers’ geoeconomic influence in, 33–36; security and economic tensions reinforcing one another in, 46–48; state capitalism impacts on, 36–37, 42–43, 269n15
Investment policy: Chinese geoeconomics using, 27, 43–46, 53–54, 55, 56, 58, 97, 99, 101, 104–105, 115–117, 119–120, 125, 134–138, 148–149, 244, 274n55; energy industry-related, 43, 44–46, 53–54; foreign direct investment in, 53–54, 56; geoeconomic
endowment related to, 87–89, 148–149; as geoeconomic instrument, 27, 28, 34, 36, 39, 40, 43–46, 53–58, 87–89, 97, 99, 101, 104–105, 115–117, 119–120, 125, 132–133, 134–138, 148–149, 191, 227, 241, 242–245, 249, 269n20, 274n55, 279n39, 279–280nn44–46; inbound investments in, 57; infrastructure-related, 115–117, 119–120, 125, 227; Overseas Private Investment Corporation, 243–244, 249; reserve levels in, 54; sovereign wealth funds in, 54–57, 88, 89, 137, 269n20, 279n39, 279–280nn44–46; state-owned enterprises in, 53, 54, 55, 88, 116–117, 137, 148–149; U.S.-Chinese bilateral investment treaty, 136; U.S. geoeconomics using, 53, 56, 57, 88, 136, 191, 227, 241, 242–245