The American West
Page 54
45. Monica Sone, Nisei Daughter (Boston, 1953), 42; Hayashi, “For the Sake of Our Japanese Brethren,” 85, 93.
46. Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese Community in California, 1919–1982 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993), 94; New York Times, June 20, 1998.
47. Richard Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps: Dillon S. Myer and American Racism (Berkeley, Calif., 1987), vii, 31, 39.
Chapter 10: New Frontiers
1. U.S. Census Office, Compendium of the Eleventh Census: 1890. Part I. Population (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1892), xlviii; John Mack Faragher, ed., Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner: “The Significance of the Frontier in American History” and Other Essays (New Haven, 1999), 31, 60.
2. Frank Popper, “The Strange Case of the Contemporary American Frontier,” Yale Review 76 (Autumn 1986): 101–21.
3. Edgar W. Nye, Remarks by Bill Nye (New York, 1887), 467.
4. Elliott West, “Reconstructing Race,” Western Historical Quarterly 34 (2003): 23–26.
5. William Appleman Williams, History as a Way of Learning (New York, 1973), 148; Fred Hoxie, ed., Indians in American History: An Introduction (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1988), 244.
6. Williams, History as a Way of Learning, 145; Faragher, Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner, 144, 149.
7. L. G. Moses, Wild West Shows and the Images of American Indians, 1883–1933 (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1996), 272; John G. Neihardt, Black Elk Speaks: Being the Life Story of a Holy Man of the Oglala Sioux (1932; reprint ed., New York, 1972), 193.
8. Richard Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York, 1992), 81–82.
9. G. Edward White, The Eastern Establishment and the Western Experience: The West of Frederic Remington, Theodore Roosevelt, and Owen Wister (New Haven, 1968), 80, 85, 91.
10. Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation, 171.
11. Owen Wister, The Virginian: A Horseman of the Plains (New York, 1903), 29, 474, 503.
12. White, Eastern Establishment and Western Experience, 58, 59, 100, 106, 107, 121.
13. Jules David Prown et al., Discovered Lands, Invented Pasts: Transforming Visions of the American West (New Haven, 1992), 106.
14. White, Eastern Establishment and Western Experience, 57, 109.
15. Donald Worster, An Unsettled Country: Changing Landscapes of the American West (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1994), 71.
16. Roy M. Robbins, Our Landed Heritage: The Public Domain, 1776–1936 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1962), 246.
17. Patricia Trenton and Peter H. Hassrick, The Rocky Mountains: A Vision for Artists in the Nineteenth Century (Norman, Okla., 1983), 121, 128.
18. Ibid., 128; Prown et al., Discovered Lands, Invented Pasts, 12–13, 15.
19. Worster, Unsettled Country, 76; Howard R. Lamar, ed., The New Encyclopedia of the American West (New Haven, 1998), 118; David M. Wrobel, The End of American Exceptionalism: Frontier Anxiety from the Old West to the New Deal (Lawrence, Kans., 1993), 66.
20. Joseph M. Petulla, American Environmental History: The Exploitation and Conservation of Natural Resources (San Francisco, 1977), 230; Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 3rd ed. (New Haven, 1982), 107, 110.
21. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 111.
22. Ibid., 113, 114.
23. Ibid., 126, 128.
24. Richard West Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks: A History (New Haven, 1997), 119.
25. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 128, 130.
26. Roderick Nash, ed., American Environmentalism: Readings in Conservation History, 3rd ed. (New York, 1990), 60.
27. Ibid., 44; John Perlin, A Forest Journey: The Role of Wood in the Development of Civilization (New York, 1989), 361.
28. William G. Robbins, Hard Times in Paradise: Coos Bay, Oregon, 1850–1986 (Seattle, Wash., 1988), 18, 20.
29. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 137.
30. Wrobel, End of American Exceptionalism, 96–97.
31. Charles F. Wilkinson, Crossing the Next Meridian: Land, Water, and the Future of the West (Washington, D.C., 1992), 128; Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890–1920 (Cambridge, Mass., 1959), 1.
32. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 128, 135, 138–39; Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency, 1.
33. William Robbins, Lumberjacks and Legislators: Political Economy of the U.S. Lumber Industry, 1890–1941 (College Station, Tex., 1982), 10; Sandy Marvinney, “Theodore Roosevelt, Conservationist,” New York State Conservationist 50 (June 1996): 77.
34. Marvinney, “Theodore Roosevelt, Conservationist.”
35. Timothy Cochrane, “Early Forest Service Rangers’ Fire Stories,” Forest and Conservation History 35 (1991): 18; White, Eastern Establishment and Western Experience, 197.
36. Polly Welts Kaufman, National Parks and the Woman’s Voice: A History (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1996), 65.
37. Ibid., 80–82.
38. Ibid., 87.
39. Wilkinson, Crossing the Next Meridian, 20.
40. Ibid., 246.
41. Donald Worster, Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West (New York, 1985), 167.
42. Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “Reclamation” (compact ed., 1987).
43. John Muir, The Yosemite (New York, 1962), 197; Norris Hundley Jr., The Great Thirst: Californians and Water, 1770s–1990s (Berkeley, Calif., 1992), 172–73, 175; Nash, American Environmentalism, 97; Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency, 194.
44. Donald Worster, Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s (New York, 1979), 58; Marsha L. Weisiger, Land of Plenty: Oklahomans in the Cotton Fields of Arizona, 1933–1942 (Norman, Okla., 1995), 14.
45. John Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath (New York, 1939), 126.
46. Worster, Dust Bowl, 17.
47. Thomas R. Cox et al., This Well-Wooded Land: Americans and Their Forests from Colonial Times to the Present (Lincoln, Nebr., 1985), 217; Wrobel, End of American Exceptionalism, 135.
48. Worster, Unsettled Country, 103; Richard Hofstader, The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (New York, 1969), 90.
49. Jordan A. Schwarz, The New Dealers: Power Politics in the Age of Roosevelt (New York, 1993), 298; Robert G. Athearn, The Mythic West in the Twentieth-Century America (Lawrence, Kans., 1986), 114.
50. Ibid., 256, 299.
51. Ibid., 316–17.
52. Philip Weeks, ed., The American Indian Experience: A Profile, 1524 to the Present (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1988), 240.
53. Horace M. Kallen, Culture and Democracy in the United States (New York, 1924), 116.
54. Meghan Fraze, “Legislating Divisions: The Failure of the Indian Reorganization Act on Pine Ridge” (senior essay, Yale College, 1997), 15, 20.
55. Kenneth R. Philip, Indian Self Rule: First-Hand Accounts of Indian-White Relations from Roosevelt to Reagan (Salt Lake City, Utah, 1986), 54.
56. Peter Iverson, When Indians Became Cowboys: Native Peoples and Cattle Ranching in the American West (Norman, Okla., 1994), 119–20, 181.
57. Weeks, American Indian Experience, 254.
58. Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln, Nebr., 1983), 258, 259.
Chapter 11: As the West Goes . . .
1. Neil Morgan, Westward Tilt: The American West Today (New York, 1961), vii.
2. Gerald Nash, The American West Transformed: The Impact of the Second World War (Bloomington, Ind., 1985), 157.
3. James L. Clayton, The Economic Impact of the Cold War: Sources and Readings (New York, 1970), 70.
4. Gerald D. Nash, The American West in the Twentieth Century: A Short History of an Urban Oasis (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1973), 6.
5. John R. Borchert, “America’s Changing Metropolitan Regions,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 62 (1972): 352–73.
6. Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York, 1985), 265.
7. Greg Hise, Magnetic Los Angeles: Planning the Twentieth-Century Metropolis (Baltimore, 1997), 10.
8. Larry Gordon and Tom Gorman, “Inland Empire Leads in Fatal Road Rage,” Los Angeles Times, March 9, 1999.
9. Timothy Egan, “Drawing a Hard Line against Urban Sprawl,” New York Times, December 30, 1996.
10. Gilbert Townsend and J. Ralph Dalzell, How to Plan a House (1942; reprint ed., Chicago, 1953), 2–4; Thomas Hine, Populuxe (New York, 1987), 49.
11. Michael L. Johnson, New Westers: The West in Contemporary American Culture (Lincoln, Nebr., 1996), 45.
12. Howell Raines, “From Film Star to Candidate,” New York Times, July 17, 1980.
13. “Transcript of Campaign’s First Presidential Debate, with Reagan vs. Anderson,” New York Times, September 22, 1980, “Transcript of Second Inaugural Address by Reagan,” January 22, 1985.
14. Dan Frost, “American Indians in the 1990s,” American Demographics 13 (December 1991): 28.
15. Bergen Record, March 17, 1991.
16. D’Arcy McNickle, Native American Tribalism: Indian Survivals and Renewals (New York, 1973), 107–8.
17. Joan Weibel-Orlando, Indian Country, L.A.: Maintaining Ethnic Community in Complex Society (Urbana, Ill., 1991), 104.
18. Peter Matthiessen, In the Spirit of Crazy Horse (New York, 1983), 35; Steven Mintz, ed., Native American Voices: A History and Anthology (St. James, N.Y., 1995), 175.
19. W. John Moore, “Tribal Imperatives,” National Journal, June 9, 1990, 1396.
20. Frost, “American Indians in the 1990s,” 26.
21. William Plummer, “Hearing His Own Drum: Activist Russell Means Dances with Hollywood,” People, October 12, 1992.
22. Quintard Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528–1990 (New York, 1998), 261.
23. Gretchen Lemke-Santangelo, Abiding Courage: African American Migrant Women and the East Bay Community (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1996), 1, 65.
24. Lemke-Santangelo, Abiding Courage, 67; Taylor, In Search of a Racial Frontier, 257, 265.
25. Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier, 261.
26. Stan Steiner, La Raza: The Mexican Americans (New York, 1969), 180–81; “Roybal Recalls Prejudice inside Council, Congress,” Los Angeles Times, July 27, 1987; Manuel Jimenez, “For 43 Years, Roybal Has ‘Fought for His People,’” Los Angeles Times, January 28, 1993.
27. Augustus F. Hawkins, “Chilling a Quarter Century of Civil-Rights Progress Is No Mere Technicality,” Los Angeles Times, July 11, 1989.
28. Charles Wollenberg, “Mendez v. Westminister: Race, Nationality, and Segregation in California Schools,” California Historical Quarterly 53 (1974): 318.
29. Taylor, In Search of a Racial Frontier, 280.
30. Peter Y. Hong, “West Adams: A Home for Dreamers,” Los Angeles Times, January 10, 1995.
31. Gerald Horne, Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (Charlottesville, Va., 1995), 249.
32. Richard Griswold del Castillo, Cesar Chávez: A Triumph of Spirit (Norman, Okla., 1995), 13.
33. Gerald Nash and Richard Etulain, eds., The Twentieth-Century West: Historical Interpretations (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1989), 134.
34. Griswold del Castillo, Cesar Chávez, 48–49; David G. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley, Calif., 1991), 88.
35. Los Angeles Almanac, http://www.laalmanac.com/population/po13.htm.
36. Leonard Pitt and Dale Pitt, Los Angeles A to Z: An Encyclopedia of the City and County (Berkeley, Calif., 1997), 140; David Rieff, Los Angeles: Capital of the Third World (New York, 1991), 151; Richard Rodriguez, “Go North, Young Man,” Mother Jones, July–August 1995.
37. Rieff, Los Angeles, 192.
38. Neil Nisperos, “Why 42,000 People Moved from Los Angeles County to San Bernardino County from 2007-2-11,” Inland Valley Daily Bulletin, February 5, 2014; Timothy Egan, “Eastward, Ho! The Great Move Reverses,” New York Times, May 30, 1993.
Chapter 12: “It Ain’t Where You’re From, It’s Where You’re At”
1. David Ng, “The Los Angeles Urban Rangers Go on ‘Safari’ in the City,” Los Angeles Times, August 16, 2009.
2. Sophie Duvernoy, “Westin Bonaventure Hotel Tour with the L.A. Urban Rangers: Great Adventure or Postmodern Dystopia,” LA Weekly, July 12, 2011.
3. Ibid.
4. James Glanz, “Data Barns in a Farm Town, Gobbling Power and Flexing Muscle,” New York Times, September 24, 2012.
5. Samuel P. Hays, Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955–1985 (New York, 1987), 34; Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 3rd ed. (New Haven, 1982), 188, 288; Nash, ed., American Environmentalism: Readings in Conservation History, 3rd ed. (New York, 1990), 77; Richard West Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks: A History (New Haven, 1997), 194.
6. Peter A. Coates, The Trans-Alaska Pipeline Controversy: Technology, Conservation, and the Frontier (Washington, D.C., 1992), 91.
7. Joseph E. Taylor, Pilgrims of the Vertical: Yosemite Rock Climbers and Nature at Risk (Cambridge, Mass., 2010), 137.
8. Kyle Stock, “Patagonia’s ‘Buy Less’ Plea Spurs More Buying,” Bloomberg Businessweek, August 28, 2013.
9. Edward Buscombe, ed., The BFI Companion to the Western (New York, 1988), 321.
10. J. Fred MacDonald, Who Shot the Sheriff? The Rise and Fall of the Television Western (New York, 1987), 103.
11. Ibid., 108; Richard Slotkin, The Fatal Environment: The Myth of the Frontier in the Age of Industrialization, 1800–1890 (Middletown, Conn., 1985), 16; Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York, 1992), 495–96.
12. Nicolaas Mink, “A (Napoleon) Dynamite Identity: Rural Idaho, the Politics of Place, and the Creation of New Western Film,” Western Historical Quarterly 39 (2008): 164; Napoleon Dynamite, directed by Jared Hess (Fox Searchlight, 2004), DVD.
13. Sherman Alexie, The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian (New York, 2009), 1.
14. Mike Pesca, “I figured out Napoleon Dynamite,” January 24, 2014, 10:16 p.m., Tweet.
15. Mink, “(Napoleon) Dynamite Identity,” 161.
16. “I Know You Got Soul,” Paid in Full, 4th and B’way Records, 1987.
Index
Abbott, Carl, 312
Abenakis, 65
Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian, The (Alexie), 451–54
Accault, Michel, 49
Acomas, 32, 34–35
Act for the Government and Protection of Indians (Cal.), 251
activism, pan-Indian, 409–11
Adamic, Louis, 330
Adams, John Quincy, 156–57, 179, 182–83, 191
Adams, Mildred, 331
aerospace industry, 389–90, 391–93. See also Hughes, Howard
African Americans: Black Panthers, 418–20; Buffalo Soldiers, 220–21, 448; in Congress, 416; migration to Kansas, 279–82; in southern California, 331–33, 417–18; Southern Homestead Act and, 279; and Texan independence, 186–87, 189; unemployment, 418; urban riots, 418, 419; during and after World War II, 413. See also Africans, enslaved; segregation; slavery
African Methodist Episcopal Church, 280–81
Africans, enslaved: in the British colonies, 80–81, 139; in the Caribbean, 27; harsh treatment of, 185; and Texan independence, 186–87, 189; western slavery, 143. See also slavery
Agricultural Adjustment Act (1932), 373–74
agriculture: 20th-century transformation in, 369–70; Asian workers, 298–300, 302–3; bonanza farms, 247–48; citrus fruit, 298, 324; Depression-era migration of workers, 374; and the Dust Bowl, 374–76; and federal irrigation projects, 371, 372–73; mechanization of, 246–48, 369–70; Mexican farmworkers, 306–9, 420–22; native practices, 6; new Deal reforms, 373–74; surplus and fal
ling prices, 370, 373; in Texas, 304. See also farming
Agriculture Department, 325, 364
AIM (American Indian Movement), 409–11
aircraft construction, 389–90, 391–92
Alabama, 132, 166, 185, 200, 425
Alamo, the, 98, 188
Alaska, 96–98, 228, 425
Albright, Horace, 367–69
Alcatraz Island, AIM occupation of, 410
alcohol, 88–89, 124
Aleutian Islands, 96–98
Aleuts, 96–98
Alexie, Sherman, 451–54
Algonquians: Christian converts, 65, 66; and French traders and colonists, 48–49, 61; hunting methods, 74–75; vs. Iroquois, 41; Lakotas driven west by, 145; log cabins adopted, 75–76; New England colonists’ relations with, 62–69; Rowlandson held captive, 67–68; and the Virginia colonists, 54–56, 57–61. See also Delawares (Lenni-Lenapes); Narragansetts; Pequots; Wampanoags
Allen, Paul, 393
allotment of reservation lands, 287–88, 380–82
Alpine, Utah, 276–77
Alta California. See California
Alton, Illinois, 313
American Forestry Association, 361
American G.I. Forum, 416
American Indian Defense Association, 381
American Railway Union, 259–60
American Revolution, 106–10; land claims following, 110–12
Ames, Oakes, 236
Amherst, Jeffrey, Gen., 92–94
Annawon (Wampanoag warrior), 68–69
Anthony, Susan B., 278
anti-Catholicism, 201, 204
Apaches: Comanche raids on, 81–82; federal campaign against, 216–17; herds, and raids on Pueblos, 37; horses acquired, 81; and the Indian Removal Act, 180; move to reservations resisted, 266–68; name, 3; San Carlos Apaches, 266–67, 383–84
Appalachian Mountains, settlement of, 79–80, 95
Apple, 393
Arapahos: at Fort Laramie conference, 208; Ghost Dancers, 289; and the Indian Removal Act, 180; at Little Bighorn, 263–65; move onto Plains, 165–66; and the Sand Creek Massacre, 219–20; treaties with, 217
Arikaras, 164, 208
Arizona: Apache reservation, 266–67, 383–84; arrival of the Spaniards, 32; during the Civil War, 212; cotton production, 212; emerging majority minority (map), 425; Geronimo’s raids in, 267–68; Japanese farmers in, 302–3; mining in, 228, 232; school segregation ended, 417; statehood, 200; U.S. acquisition of, 200–201. See also Apaches; Navajos; New Mexico (Spanish/Mexican); Phoenix