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16 Marine-Archiv, Der Krieg zur See. Das Kreuzergeschwader, i. 25–6; 1–34 for the basis of German cruiser operations in general; also Overlack, War & Society, XVII (1999), 1–23.
17 Ganz, Militärgeschichtliches Mitteilungen, 21 (1977), 39–40.
18 Epkenhans, Wilhelminische Flottenrüstung, 396–8, 414; id., ‘Germany 1880–1914’, in Phillips O’Brien (ed.), Preparing for the next war at sea; Stevenson, Armaments and the coming of war, 290.
19 Güth ‘Organisation der deutschen Marine’, 276–8.
20 Overlack, War & Society, X (1992), 44; Ganz, Militärgeschichtliches Mitteilungen, 21 (1977), 46–7.
21 Marine-Archiv, Kreuzergeschwader, app. II, provides a graphic illustration of the belligerents’ global wireless networks.
22 Overlack, Journal of Military History, LX (1996), 657–9; id. Journal of Strategic Studies, XX (1997),94–114.
23 Marine-Archiv, Kreuzergeschwader, i. 7; Wegener, Seestrategie, 65–7; Assmann, Deutsche Seestrategie, 70–2.
24 Lambi, Navy and German power politics, 409–11.
25 Overlack, Australian Journal of Politics and History, XL (1994), 36–51.
26 Bennett, Naval battles, 50; for the full instructions, see Marine-Archiv, Kreuzergeschwader, i. 33–6.
27 Ekoko, Journal of Strategic Studies, VII (1984), 443–8.
28 Roskill, Hankey, i. 79.
29 D’Ombrain, War machinery, 111–14; Corbett, Naval operations,!. 128–30; Louis, Great Britain and Germany’s lost colonies, 36–7.
30 On Japan’s entry to the war, see esp. Chi, China diplomacy, ch. 1; La Fargue, China, ch. 1; Lowe, Great Britain and Japan, ch. 6; Nish, Alliance in decline, ch. 7; id., Japanese foreign policy, 93–6; id., ‘Japan’, in Wilson (ed.), Decisions for war ; Ikuhiko Hata, ‘Continental expansion 1905–1941’, in Peter Duus (ed.), Cambridge History of Japan, vol. vi.
31 Jansen, The Japanese and Sun Yat-sen, 154–73.
32 Duus, Myers, and Peattie (eds.), Japanese informal empire, pp. xi-xxv; Dignan, Indian revolutionary problem, 76–7;May, Mississippi Valley Historical Review, XL (1953–4), 279–90.
33 Meaney, Search for security, 261–3.
34 Schenking, War in History, V (1998), 308–11, 318–20; Evans and Peattie, Kaigun, 160–6.
35 Peattie, Nanyo, 36–7; Myers and Peattie, Japanese colonial empire, 17–18; Evans and Peattie, Kaigun, 134–51; Humphreys, Way of the heavenly sword, 8–13, 19–20.
36 Dua, Anglo-Japanese relations, 139–43, 152, 166–7, 175.
37 Gordon, Past and Present, 121 (Nov. 1988), 141–70.
38 Chi, China diplomacy, 16–18.
39 Nish, Alliance in decline, 135.
40 Burdick, Tsingtau, 65, 79–80; Mark Grove, ‘The development of Japanese amphibious warfare, 1874 to 1942’, 30.
41 Chi, China diplomacy, 21–4; Jones, Britain’s search for Chinese co-operation, 18–22; Craft, International History Review, XVI (1994), 4–5.
42 Burdick, Tsingtau, chs. 4, 5, 6.
43 Schenking, War in History, V (1998), 321–3; Peattie, Nanyo, 40–4.
44 Jose, Royal Australian Navy, 47–99, and Mackenzie, Australians at Rabaul, give an account of the operations while glossing over their sub-imperialist thrust; see also Klein-Arendt, Kamina ruft Nauen, 257–60.
45 Hiery, Neglected war, 12–14,18–25.
46 On Spee’s strategy, see esp. Castex, Théories stratégiques, ii. 139–92; Marine-Archiv, Kreuzergeschwader, i. 30–4; Corbett, Naval operations, vol. I, is an important corrective to Castex’s eulogy of Spee. Overlack, Journal of Military History, LX (1996), 657–68, reviews Spee’s decisions. Good recent accounts are Yates, Graf Spee’s raiders, and Bennett, Coronel and Falklands ; Hough, Pursuit of Admiral von Spee, adds little; Pochhammer, Before Jutland, is the testimony of the senior surviving German officer of Spee’s squadron; Halpern, Naval history, adds important detail.
47 Yates, Graf Spee’s raiders, 33, 40.
48 Jose, Royal Australian Navy, 5,10–11,18–19.
49 Ibid. 22,122–8.
50 Gordon, Rules of the game, 391.
51 In addition to the works cited above, see also Jack Sweetman, ‘Coronel: anatomy of a disaster’, in Jordan (ed.), Naval warfare.
52 Hough, Pursuit, 87.
53 Marder, From the Dreadnought, ii. 109–10.
54 Yates, Graf Spee’s raiders, 139–40.
55 Jose, Royal Australian Navy, 55.
56 Beesly, Room 40, 76–7, suggests that Spee might have been led on by a deliberately placed false report that the Falklands were abandoned. Occleshaw, Armour against fate, 115–16, is much less cautious in accepting this story.
57 Santorini, Revue internationale d’histoire militaire, 63 (1985), 103.
58 Pochhammer, Before Jutland, 202–3.
59 Ibid. 205; Pochhammer noted how relatively clean Gneisenaus hull was as she went down: p. 217.
60 Yates, Graf Spee’s raiders, 214.
61 Sumida, In defence, 297–9; id. (ed.), Pollen papers, 334–5; Roskill, Beatty, 100–1; appendix by H. E. Dannreuther in Hough, Pursuit, 171–5.
62 Yates, Graf Spee’s raiders, 214.
63 Marder, From the Dreadnought, ii. 127.
64 May, Mississippi Valley Historical Review, XL (1953–4), 286–7.
65 Hiery, Neglected war, 130–49; Schenking, War in History, V (1998), 324–5; Evans and Peattie, Kaigun, 167
66 Peattie, Nanyo, 45.
67 On this clash, see Louis, Great Britain and Germany’s lost colonies, 38–49; Lowe, Great Britain and Japan, 201–7. 64 May, Mississippi Valley Historical Review, XL (1953–4), 286–7.
68 Hiery, Neglected war, 46–115; Newbury, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XVI (1988), 90–1.
69 Hiery, Neglected war, 158, and generally 154–72.
70 On the evolution of British war-aims’ thought on colonial questions, see also Rothwell, British war aims, 67–74; Galbraith, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XIII (1984), 26.
71 What follows rests on Chi, China diplomacy, ch. 2; La Fargue, China and the World War, chs. 2 and 3; Lowe, Great Britain and Japan, ch. 7; Craft, International History Review, XVI (1994), 1–24. Brief discussions are Renouvin, Crise européene, 404–6, 459–63, and Stevenson, First World War, 133–4.
72 Duus, Myers, and Peattie (eds.), Japanese informal empire, 71–3.
73 Jansen, Japanese and Sun Yat-sen, 180–2.
74 Hayashima, Illusion des Sonderfriedens, 18–26.
75 Chi, China diplomacy, 38.
76 Jansen, Japanese and Sun Yat-sen, 188–97.
77 Kitaoka Shin’ichi, ‘China experts in the army’, in Duus, Myers, and Peattie (eds.), Japanese informal empire, 351–4.
78 Jones, Britain’s search for Chinese co-operation, 50–73.
79 Nish, Alliance in decline, 196.
80 Hardach, First World War, 258–66; Renouvin, Crise européenne, 676–7; Duus, Myers, and Peattie (eds.), Japanese informal empire, 77–84.
81 T. G. Fraser, History, LXIII (1978), 366–82.
82 Hayashima, Illusion des Sonderfriedens, 31–118; Iklé, American Historical Review, LXXI (1965), 6276; Fischer, Germany’s war aims, 228.
83 G. D. Malone, ‘War aims towards Germany’, in Dallin et al. (eds.) Russian diplomacy, 150–3.
84 Craft, International History Review, XVI (1994), 14–15; Dignan, Indian revolutionary problem, 100, 154–8,162–3,183–5; Jones, Britain’s search for Chinese co-operation, 33, 93–6,127–30,133–4.
85 Asquith, Letters to Venetia Stanley, 349; more generally, Rothwell, History, LVI (1971), 35–45; Nish, ‘Japan 1914–18’, in Millett and Murray (eds.), Military effectiveness, vol. I.
86 La Fargue, China and the world war, 4–5,18.
87 Marder, From the Dreadnought,’ iv. 36.
1 Savage and Munro, Journal of African History, VII (1966), 314.
2 McLaughlin, Ragtime soldiers, 2, 5–7.
3 Ticktin, South African Historical Journal, (Nov. 1969), 69–7
0.
4 These approximations are derived from M.E. Page, ‘Black men in a white men’s war’, in Page (ed.) Africa and the First World War, 14; M. Crowder, ‘First World War and its consequences’, 283, 293.
5 S.C. Davis, Reservoirs of men, 160.
6 Wolfgang Petter, ‘Der Kampf um die deutschen Kolonien’, in Michalka (ed.), De Erste Weltkrieg, 397–9
7 Michel, L’Appel à l’Afrique, 21–4, 404; Echenberg, Colonial conscripts, 25–32.
8 Osuntokun, Nigeria in the First World War, viii.
9 Roger Thomas, Cahiers d’études africaines, XV (1975), 57.
10 Peter McLaughlin, ‘The legacy of conquest: African military manpower in Southern Rhodesia during the First World War’, in Page (ed.), Africa, 121,132; McLaughlin, Ragtime soldiers, 75; id., Small Wars and Insurgencies, II (1991), 249–57.
11 On carriers, see esp. Geoffrey Hodges, Carrier corps ; Hodges, ‘Military labour in East Africa and its impact on Kenya’, in Page (ed.), Africa ; D. Killingray and J. Matthews, Canadian Journal of African Studies, XIII (1979), 5–23; D. Killingray, Journal of Contemporary History, XXIV, (1989), 483–501;D.C. Savage and J. F. Munro, Journal of African History, VII (1966), 313–42.
12 East African Standard, 6 Apr. 1917, quoted by Savage and Munro, Journal of African History, VII (1966) 314.
13 Lettow-Vorbeck, Reminiscences, 30.
14 Gorges, Great War in West Africa, 203; Purschel, Kaiserliche Schütztruppe, 28; Ministère de la guerre, Armées françaises, IX, 2e vol., 540–4.
15 Mentzel, Kämpfe in Kamerun, 45; Gorges, Great War in West Africa, 203.
16 Hodges in Page (ed.), Africa, 148.
17 Killingray, Journal of Contemporary History, XXIV (1989), 489.
18 Killingray and Matthews, Canadian Journal of African Studies, XIII (1979), 10; Osuntokun, Nigeria, 252.
19 Hodges, Journal of African History, XIX (1978), 101–16; Belgique, Ministère de la Défense Nationale, Campagnes coloniales belges,!. 34;Pélissier, Mozambique, ii. 684–5.
20 Ministère de la Guerre, Armées françaises, IX, 2e vol., 141.
21 Hodges, Carrier corps, 119–30; Lucas, Empire at war, iv. 236–8.
22 Killingray and Matthews, Canadian Journal of African Studies, XIII (1979), 17–18.
23 Hodges in Page (ed.), Africa, 143–4; Killingray, Journal of Contemporary History, XXIV (1979), 493; Lucas, Empire at war, iv. 214–15.
24 Belgique, Campagnes coloniales belges, iii. 268.
25 Moberly, Togoland and Cameroons, 427.
26 Killingray and Matthews, Canadian Journal of African Studies, XIII (1979), 18.
27 Lucas, Empire at war, iv. 269–70, 292–3; Fendall, East African Force, 206–7.
28 Charbonneau, Revue militaire française, 129 (mars 1932), 412–15; Student, Kameruns Kampf, 171; Belgique, Campagnes coloniales belges, i.33.
29 Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 108.
30 War Office, Statistics of the military effort, 302.
31 Gorges, Great War in West Africa, 261–2.
32 Charles Miller, Battle for the Bundu, 139, 233.
33 McLaughlin, Ragtime soldiers, 41, 46.
34 Mitchell and Smith, Medical services: casualties, 259.
35 Moberly, Togoland and Cameroons, 427.
36 War Office, Statistics of the military effort, 302.
37 Lucas, Empire at war, iv.66, 118.
38 Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 154.
39 Purschel, Kaiserliche Schütztruppe, 81–3.
40 Moberly, Togoland and Cameroons; Charbonneau, Revue militaire française, 129 (mars 1932), 419–20.
41 Charbonneau, Revue militaire française, 129 (mars 1932), 404–5; Beadon, Royal Army Service Corps, ii. 296; Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 250–4.
42 Haywood and Clarke, Royal West African Frontier Force, 272–3.
43 Mentzel, Kämpfe im Kamerun, 18.
44 Yates, Graf Spee’s raiders, 249–59.
45 The best narratives of operations are Lucas, Empire at war, iv. 3; Moberly, Togoland and Cameroons, ch. 1; Sebald, Togo 1884–1914, 593–605; Haywood and Clarke, Royal West African Frontier Force, 97–104. On Bryant’s role and plans, see Grove, Army Quarterly, CVI (1976), 308–23;Ekoko, Journal of Strategic Studies, VII (1984), 440–56.
46 Reichsarchiv, Weltkrieg, ix. 466. German strengths are variously given; Schwarte, Weltkampf, iv. 360, has 400 effectives; Sebald, Togo, has 500, rising to 1,000 on mobilization; Haywood and Clarke, Royal West African Frontier Force, 98, manage to find 1,500.
47 Killingray, Journal of African History, XIX (1978), 43, 54; Osuntokun, Nigeria, 22–4; Crowder, ‘The 1914–1918 European war and West Africa’, 503; Lucas, Empire at war, iv. 21; Michel, L’Appel à l’Afrique, 147–8.
48 Lucas, Empire at war, iv. 29.
49 Klein-Arendt, Kamina ruft Nauen, 265–74.
50 The basic premisses of German strategy, which have almost entirely eluded English-language authors, are spelt out by Mentzel, Die Kämpfe in Kamerun (1936), 25–34, and are also to be found in Reichsarchiv, Weltkrieg, ix. 470–2. Mentzel’s is the most sensible overview of the campaign in any language; his earlier survey (1932) is also suggestive, but brief. The fullest (as well as most critical) operational account is the French official history, Ministère de la Guerre, Les Armées françaises, IX, 2e vol.; the British official history, Moberly, Togoland and Cameroons, focuses on British operations but fails to provide a wider context; Student, Kameruns Kampf, the most detailed German account, has the same defect. On the tactics of bush war, see Purschel, Kaiserliche Schütztruppe für Kamerun, and Charbonneau, Revue militaire française, 129 (mars 1932), 397–420, and 130 (avril 1932), 80–99. Memoirs, helpful but posing as more objective accounts, include Aymérich, Conquête du Cameroun, and Gorges, Great War in West Africa. Haywood and Clarke, Royal West African Frontier Force, ch. 4, and Osuntokun, Nigeria, ch. 6, are both valuable. The only recent English-language survey, Farwell, Great War in Africa, is bounded by the Anglocentric concerns of Moberly and Gorges. Michel, Guerres mondiales et conflicts contemporains, 168 (1992), 13–29, is helpful; Nouzille, Revue internationale d’histoire militaire, 63 (1985), 9–20, is disappointing.
51 Michel, L’Appel à l’Afrique, 42–3.
52 War Office, Statistics of the military effort, 383.
53 Purschel, Kaiserliche Schütztruppe, 118–19; also 54–60.
54 Ibid. 60–2; Mentzel, Kämpfe in Kamerun (1936), 18–19, and Student, Kameruns Kampf, 23, adopt these figures but Mentzel, Kämpfe in Kamerun (1932), 44, has different totals.
55 Schoen, Deutschen Feuerwerkswesens, 1395–6.
56 Student, Kameruns Kampf, 154–6, 286–7, is particularly graphic on these difficulties.
57 Purschel, Kaiserliche Schütztruppe, 30–1, 76–80; Student, Kameruns kampf, 153–9.
58 Klein-Arendt, Kamina ruft Nauen, 274.
59 Gorges, Great War in West Africa, 136.
60 Aymérich, Conquête, 63.
61 The only German source referred to by Moberly or Gorges is Schwarte, Weltkampf, iv. 377–85; Entente intelligence during the war had clearly provided little.
62 Osuntokun, Nigeria, 173; Moberly, Togoland and Cameroons, 16.
63 Belgique, Campaignes coloniales belges, i. 17–23;Aymérich, Conquête, 26–7.
64 Michel, Guerres mondiales et conflicts contemporains, 168 (1992), 13,16.
65 Osuntokun, Nigeria, 177–8.
66 Digre, Imperialism’s new clothes, 23; Andreas Eckert, ‘“Verdammt seien die Deutschen!”’, Die Zeit, 5 Aug. 1994, 58; Stoecker, German imperialism, 275.
67 Osuntokun, Nigeria, 176–7.
68 Moberly, Togoland and Cameroons, 71–2, 145, 215–16.
69 Ibid. 8–9; Haywood and Clarke, Royal West Africa Frontier Force, 104; Osuntokun, Nigeria, 169–72; Gorges, Great War in West Africa, 40–4, 47.
70 Gorges, Great War in Africa, 79; Moberly, Togoland and Cameroons, 59–60.
71 Osuntokun, Nigeria, 181–2; Haywood and Clarke, Royal West Africa Frontie
r Force, 106–11.
72 Suren, Kameruns Kampf, 109,114.
73 Haywood and Clarke, Royal West Africa Frontier Force, 125–6.
74 Ministère de la Guerre, Armées françaises, IX, 2e vol., 206–31.