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75 Aymérich, Conquête, 94.
76 Student, Kameruns Kampf, 104–5.
77 Haywood and Clarke, Royal West African Frontier Force, 127,133–6.
78 Moberly, Togoland and Cameroons, 216.
79 Ibid. 246.
80 Osuntokun, Nigeria, 110–14, 222–4.
81 Lucas, Empire at war, iv. 86.
82 Ministère de la Guerre, Armées françaises, IX, 2e vol., 195–205.
83 Charbonneau, Revue militaire française, 130 (avril 1932), 89.
84 Ministère de la Guerre, Armées françaises, IX, 2e vol., 368–9.
85 Ibid. 395–8.
86 Student, Kameruns Kampf, 180.
87 Haywood and Clarke, Royal West African Frontier Force, 150.
88 Ministère de la Guerre, Armées françaises, IX, 2e vol., 540–4.
89 Ibid. 323–32, 351–5, 562–70; Student, Kameruns Kampf, 216–17.
90 Student, Kameruns Kampf, 219; Purschel, Kaiserliche Schütztruppe, 67–8.
91 Aymérich, Conquête, 127.
92 Student, Kameruns Kampf, 147; see also Osuntokun, Nigeria, 189–90.
93 Suren, Kampf um Kamerun, 197–228, 326.
94 The British sources all see Brisset’s actions as evidence of French Anglophobia and not of a different strategic appreciation. Ministère de la Guerre, Armées françaises, IX, 2e vol., 363–4, 387–92, 458–61, 586–98, provides a corrective.
95 Student, Kameruns Kampf, 207–9.
96 Michel, Guerres mondiales et conflicts contemporains, 168 (1992), 20, 26.
97 Student, Kameruns Kampf, 286–7, 298
98 Moberly, Togoland and Cameroons, 314–15.
99 Aymérich, Conquête, 103,109–10,158–66.
100 Student, Kameruns Kampf, 318–19.
101 Frederick Quinn, ‘The impact of the First World War and its aftermath on the Beti of Cameroun’, in Page (ed.), Africa, 175–6.
102 Aymérich, Conquête, 169–86; Ministère de la Guerre, Armées françaises, IX, 2e vol., 756–807.
103 Osuntokun, Nigeria, 193.
104 Ibid. 193–4;Aymérich, Conquête, 198–9.
105 Michel, Guerres mondiales et conflicts contemporains, 168 (1992), 24, 27.
106 Crowder, Revolt in Bussa ; Thomas, Journal of African History, XXIV (1983), 57–75; also Afigbo, Warrant chief, 118–57.
107 Yearwood, Canadian Journal of African Studies, XXVI (1993), 235.
108 Elango, International Journal of African Historical Studies, XVIII (1985), 657–731; Louis, Great Britain and Germany’s lost colonies, 57–62; Andrew and Kanya-Forstner, France overseas, 97–9; Osuntokun, Nigeria, 206–32;Aymérich, Conquête, 200–9; Digre, Imperialism’s new clothes, 37–48.
109 Quinn, in Page (ed.), Africa, 177–8; Quinn, Cahiers d’études africaines, XIII (1973), 728–30.
110 On South Africa in the period of the First World War, see Garson, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, VIII (1979), 68–85; Hancock, Smuts 1870–1919; Katzenellenbogen, ‘Southern Africa and the war of 1914–18’; Meintjes, Botha ; Walker, History of Southern Africa, ch. 14.
111 Ticktin, South African Historical Journal, I (1969), 59–80, on the Labour party; on popular responses in general, see Nasson, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XXII (1995), 248–76; also Nasson, War & Society, XII (1994), 47–64.
112 Louis, Great Britain and Germany’s lost colonies, 31.
113 Meintjes, Botha, 205–6; M.W. Swanson, ‘South West Africa in Trust 1915–1939’, in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Britain and Germany in Africa, 632; Hyam, Failure of South African Expansion, 26.
114 Spies, South African Historical Journal, I (1969), 47–57.
115 Hancock and Poel, Smuts papers, iii. 201.
116 Hancock, Smuts 1870–1919, 379.
117 Swart, Journal of South African Studies, XXIV (1998), 746; for what follows see also Collyer, Campaign in German South West Africa, 15–20.
118 Collyer, Campaign in German South West Africa, 28; Corbett, Naval operations,!. 316; Hancock and Poel, Smuts papers, iii. 201–2.
119 Hennig, Deutsch-Südwest im Weltkriege, 98.
120 L’Ange, Urgent imperial service, 4; this is the most recent account of the campaign.
121 Davenport, English Historical Review, LXXVIII (1963), 73–94, is the major scholarly account of the rebellion; both Hancock, Smuts, 379–91, and Meintjes, Botha, chs. 14 and 15, are helpful; Lucas, Empire at war, 377–432, is full but partisan.
122 Meintjes, Botha, 230.
123 Lucas, Empire at war, iv. 396.
124 Nasson, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XXIII (1995), 264. See also Swart, Journal of South African Studies XXIV (1998), 738–43.
125 Hancock, Smuts 1870–1919, 391; Lucas, Empire at war, iv. 425–6, gives much higher losses, totalling about 1,000 for both sides; Meintjes, Botha, 249, says 374 government troops were killed and wounded, and 190 rebels were killed and 350 wounded.
126 Hennig, Deutsch-Südwest in Weltkriege, 102–5,123–4,129–32,155–9; Oelhafen, Feldzug in Südwest, 98.
127 Kautsky (ed.), Die deutschen Dokumente zum Kriegsausbruch, iii. 133.
128 Seitz, Südafrika in Weltkriege, 29–32, 35–9; Hennig, Deutsch-Südwest, 74–5; Oelhafen, Feldzug in Südwest, 8–9, 31–2; Zirkel, ‘Military power in German Colonial Policy’, 104–7.
129 Solff, the colonial minister, said he had authorized governors to issue promissory notes, or ‘weissen Schuldscheine’, as wages for employees, 10 August 1914; see Wolff, Tagebücher,!. 69.
130 Reichsarchiv, Weltkrieg, ix. 475; Seitz, Südafrika in Weltkrieg, 15–17; Oelhafen, Feldzug in Südwest, 15–16 takes a more positive line on food.
131 Reichsarchiv, Weltkrieg, ix. 475; Seitz, Südafrika in Weltkrieg, 11–12, gives 70 in all; Hennig, Deutsch-Südwest, 30, says 30 guns, but he may be referring to field guns only. Oelhafen, Feldzug in Südwest, 13, gives 12 mountain guns, 8field guns, and 50 antiquated pieces of eight different calibres. Seitz and Hennig are the two principal sources used to describe the German aspects of the campaign. Oelhafen is less analytical than either, and often differs from Hennig on numbers and even dates.
132 Langhorne, Historical Journal, XVI (1973), 361–87.
133 Vincent-Smith, European Studies Review, YV (1974), 207–14.
134 Pélissier, Guerres grises, 482–8;Pélissier, Cahiers d’études africaines, IX (1969), 97–100; Hennig, Deutsch-Südwest, 108–22; Seitz, Südafrika in Weltkrieg, 39–41; Ribeiro de Meneses, Journal of Contemporary History, XXXIII (1998), 91. Oelhafen, Feldzug in Südwest, 76–92, gives different figures from those adopted here.
135 Botha suggested his nerve had gone, 25 May 1915: Hancock and Poel, Smuts papers, iii. 283.
136 On Heydebreck’s 1911 plan, see Reichsarchiv Weltkrieg, ix. 476; Schwarte, Weltkampf, iv. 364, makes related points.
137 Collyer, German South West Africa, 58–61, 73, 77, 85–6, 156–7, is blunt on most of these issues; Collyer was Botha’s chief of staff and his account is incisive, if didactic. See also Botha’s letters to Smuts, Hancock, and Poel, Smuts papers, iii. 242–70. Other English-language accounts: Lucas, Empire at war, iv. 433–58; Farwell, Great War in Africa, 72–104. Reitz, Trekking on, is the memoir of a participant.
138 Klein-Arendt, Kamina ruft Nauen, 276–89.
139 Blenkinsop and Rainey, Veterinary services, 385–402.
140 Hennig, Deutsch-Südwest, 272–90.
141 Schoen, Deutschen Feuerwerkswesens, 1356–7.
142 M.W. Swanson, ‘South West Africa in Trust 1915–1939’, in Gifford and Louis (eds.), Britain and Germany in Africa, 635–7, 645–50; Louis, ‘The origins of the “sacred trust”’, 56–8; Newbury, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, XVI (1988), 92–4,100–3.
143 Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 459.
144 The best of the recent English-language accounts of the campaign, all of them ‘popular’ histories, include Farwell, Great War in Africa ; Miller, Battle for the Bundu ; Mosley, Duel for Kilima
njaro ; Miller is the most stimulating. The fullest operational narrative is Boell, Operationen in Ostafrika: Boell served on Lettow’s staff. The British official history, Hordern, Military operations: East Africa, is good, but only Volume I appeared (up to September 1916). Lucas, Empire at war, Volume IV, covers the whole campaign. Two of the more illuminating memoirs are British. Fendall, East African Force, covers the campaign to 1918 and is provocative on supply and administration. Meinertzhagen, Army Diary, is opinionated, runs only to 1916, but is full of insights. Of the Germans, Schnee, Deutsch-Ostafrika im Weltkriege, both discusses civil administration and, surprisingly, gives a clearer account of operations than does Lettow-Vorbeck, Reminiscences. Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, is particularly full for 1917–18.
145 Lettow-Vorbeck, Reminiscences, 4, 198, 205–6, 209–10, 213, on offensive-mindedness; 189 on Wintgens.
146 Wolfgang Petter, ‘Der Kampf um die deutschen Kolonien’, in Michalka (ed.), Der Erste Weltkrieg, 399–400.
147 Boell, Operationen, 23.
148 Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 393.
149 Iliffe, Tanganyika, 241.
150 Ibid. 251–5; Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 100–1,191; Schnee, Deutsch-Ostafrika, vi. 77, 118–25, 218–24, 270–3. I am grateful to Ross Anderson for the point about the Makonde.
151 Fendall, East African Force, 129.
152 Marine-Archiv, Krieg zur See. Kreuzerkrieg, ii. 122–8; see also Ganz, Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen, 21 (1977), 40, 47.
153 Deppe, Mit Lettoew-Vorbeck, 22.
154 Corbett, Naval operations, Volume I, draws a veil over these Anglo-German negotiations, and their implications.
155 Boell, Operationen, 43.
156 Boell, Operationen, 22–4, 39–41; Reichsarchiv, Weltkrieg, ix. 480–2.
157 The minor variations given in 1914 strengths deny any attempt to be definitive. On the whole, Boell, Operationen, 28, has been followed in preference to Lettow-Vorbeck, Reminiscences, 19; Reichsarchiv, Weltkrieg, ix. 480, 483; Matuschka, ‘Organisationsgeschichte des Heeres’, 204–5.
158 Boell, Operationen, 427, for casualties; on morale, see Ranger, Dance and society, 53–4, 58, 66; Iliffe, Tanganyika, 248, is more critical; for punishments, review of Burkhard Vieweg, Macho Porini, vn Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen, 56 (1997), 572; for problems in 1917–18, Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 385, 390, 392.
159 Again figures vary; those given here are maximums.
160 Reitz, Trekking on, 84; Young, Marching on Tanga, 215.
161 Miller, Battle for the Bundu, 15–19.
162 Moyse-Bartlett, King’s African Rifles, 259–60, 265,335; Hordern, East Africa,!. 9, 11, 15, 561–4, 575, 579; Lucas, Empire at war, iv. 209, 225, 229.
163 Hodges, Carrier Corps, 18–19; Geoffrey Hodges, ‘Military labour in East Africa’, in Page (ed.), Africa and the First World War, 137.
164 Hordern, East Africa,!. 12–13, 16–18, 29–31; Callwell, Experiences of a dug-out, 175–7; Maxon, Struggle for Kenya, 79–80.
165 Hordern, East Africa, 65.
166 Meinertzhagen, Army Diary, 82, 84, 105; Hordern, East Africa, i.60–78, is full on the planning, if too generous to Aitken. See also Ross Anderson, War in History, VIII (2001) (Forthcoming).
167 Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 22.
168 Boell, Operationen, 74–6, 83.
169 Meinertzhagen, Army Diary, 109.
170 Andrew and Kanya-Forstner, France Overseas, 60, 62; Digre, Imperialism’s new clothes, 79–80.
171 Overstraeten, War diaries of Albert I, 79; also 88–91.
172 Digre, Imperialism’s new clothes, 105–16; Thielemans, Albert Ier, 252.
173 Louis, Ruanda-Urundi, 209–15.
174 Belgique, Ministère de la Défense Nationale, Campagnes coloniales belges, i. 173–220; Hordern, East Africa,!. 198–209.
175 Digre, Imperialism’s new clothes, 85–6.
176 Meinertzhagen, Army Diary, 120; see also Mosley, Duel for Kilimanjaro, 105–6.
177 Maxon, Struggle for Kenya, 79–82, 98–102, 103–5; Overton, Journal of African History, XXVII (1986), 79–103; Savage and Munro, in ibid., VII (1966), 319–22; Meinertzhagen, Army Diary, 149–51, and also 103, 106, 118; Lucas, Empire at war, iv.210–13.
178 Occleshaw, Armour against fate, 117; Klein-Arendt, Kamina ruft Nauen, 312.
179 Marine-Archiv, Krieg zur See. Kämpfe der Kaiserlichen Marine, ii. 214–20; Schnee, Deutsch-Ostafrika, 24–5, 64, 96,158–9, 232–3; Klein-Arendt, Kamina ruft Nauen, 292, 295, 299.
180 Marine-Archiv, Krieg zur See. Kreuzerkrieg, ii. 181–6.
181 Meinertzhagen, Army diary, 140–5.
182 Occleshaw, Armour against fate, 115–16; Klein-Arendt, Kamina ruft Nauen, 319–25;onefforts to supply East Africa in general, see Marine-Archiv, Krieg zur See: Kampfe der Kaiserlichen Marine, ii. 149–51, 197–214, 234–5.
183 Schoen, Deutschen Feuerwerkswesens, 1407.
184 Boell, Operationen, 103,179; Marine-Archiv, Krieg zur See, gives contradicting figures, Kreuzerkrieg, ii. 182, and Kämpfe der Kaiserlichen Marine, ii. 149–50,199, as does Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 165.
185 Schoen, Deutschen Feuerwerkswesens, 1452–5.
186 Crowe, Smuts’ campaign, 32, says the opposite, but there is no German evidence to corroborate Crowe.
187 Boell, Operationen, 82; Lettow’s figures, Reminiscences, 45, seem inflated.
188 Schnee, Deutsch-Ostafrika, 141–8, 165–7; see also Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 136, 169; Monson, Journal of African History, XXXIX (1998), 116.
189 Schnee, Deutsch-Ostafrika, 124,163–5,280–90,317; Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 284–8; both Franz Kempner ‘Verwaltung und Verteidigung von Deutsch-Ostafrika’, 63–6, in Draeger (ed.), Gouverneur Schnee, and Henderson, German colonial history, ch. 7, repeat Schnee’s own points. See also Meinertzhagen, Army Diary, 164.
190 Reichsarchiv, Weltkrieg, x. 484; Belgique, Campagnes Coloniales Belges, i. 138–9; Boell, Operationen, 28–9, 158; Lettow-Vorbeck, Reminiscences, 71–2.
191 Taute, Tanganyika Notes and Records, VIII (Dec. 1939), 1–20; on quinine production, Schnee, Deutsch-Ostafrika, 149–50; Lettow-Vorbeck, Reminiscences, 70, 195.
192 Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 149–52,169–76, 384–5.
193 Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 281; Klein-Arendt, Kamina ruft Nauen, 314, 317.
194 Boell, Operationen, 107–10,112–15; Mosley, Duel for Kilimanjaro, 97, has different figures.
195 Boell, Operationen, 117.
196 Ibid. 115–27; Hordern, East Africa,!. 183–91; Belgique, Campagnes colonialesbelges, i. 121, 200, 211–12.
197 The only really effective criticism of Lettow, albeit slightly misconceived, is Buhrer, L’Afrique orientale allemande, 336–9.
198 Boell, Operationen, 124–5,134–5–
199 Ibid. 142.
200 Callwell, Experiences of a dug-out, 178–9.
201 Shepperson and Price, Independent African ; S.E. Katzenellenbogen, ‘Southern Africa and the war of 1914–18’, in Foot (ed.), War and Society, 117–19; E. J. Yorke, ‘A crisis of colonial control’, 20–36,127–8,133–4,150–8.
202 Yorke, ‘A crisis of colonial control’, 131–2.
203 Hyam, Failure of South African expansion, 23–9,36; Hancock and Poel, Smuts papers, iii. 307–10; Warhurst, South African Historical Journal, XVI (1984), 82–8.
204 Garson, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, VIII (1979), 76–7; Hancock, Smuts, 408; Hancock and Pool, Smuts papers, iii. 296–7.
205 Hordern, East Africa, i. 211–13; Callwell, Experiences of a dug-out, 178–9; Fendall, East African Force, 39–49.
206 Smith-Dorrien, Memories, 482–9
207 Gilbert, Churchill, iii. 563–6; see also Companion, 1251–2.
208 Meinertzhagen, Army Diary, 194; see also Fendall, East African Force, 57; Page, International Journal of African Historical Studies, XIV (1981), 467–9.
209 Crowe, General Smuts’ campaign, 4.
210 Ibid. 3–4; Fendall, East African Force, 144–8; als
o 53–6; Collyer, South Africans with Smuts, 60; Beadon, Royal Army Service Corps, ii. 297, 299–301; cf. Ian Brown, British logistics, 44–51.
211 Collyer, South Africans with Smuts, 280.
212 Meinertzhagen, Army diary, 127.
213 Smith-Dorrien, Memories, 486.