195. Jie Zong and Jeanne Batalova, “Middle Eastern and North African Immigrants in the United States,” Migration Information Source, Migration Policy Institute, June 3, 2015, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/middle-eastern-and-north-african-immigrants-united-states.
196. Ibid.
197. Ibid.
198. “American Muslims in the United States,” Teaching Tolerance, Southern Poverty Law Center, http://www.tolerance.org/publication/american-muslims-united-states
199. Eboo Patel, introduction to Andrew Garrod and Robert Kilkenny, eds., Growing Up Muslim: Muslim College Students in America Tell Their Life Stories (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2014), Kindle edition, location 148.
200. Ibid., location 490.
201. Ibid., location 1418.
202. Amir Marvasti and Karyn D. McKinney, Middle Eastern Lives in America (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Little, 2004).
203. Al-Khatahtbeh, Muslim Girl, location 36.
204. Ibid., location 241.
205. Ibid., location 261.
206. Ibid., location 503.
207. Ibid., location 506.
208. Ibid., location 518.
209. Ibid., location 542.
210. Ibid., location 985.
211. Ibid., location 998.
212. Garrod and Kilkenny, Growing Up Muslim, location 501.
213. Ibid., location 582.
214. Eric Lichtblau, “U.S. Hate Crimes Surge 6%, Fueled by Attacks on Muslims,” New York Times, November 14, 2016, https://nyti.ms/2ezOFXH.
215. Al-Khatahtbeh, Muslim Girl, location 1451.
216. Peter Baker, “Travelers Stranded and Protests Swell over Trump Order,” New York Times, January 29, 2017, https://nyti.ms/2jFy45B.
217. Al-Khatahtbeh, Muslim Girl, location 1433.
Chapter 9: Identity Development in Multiracial Families
1. Pew Research Center, Multiracial in America: Proud, Diverse and Growing in Numbers, June 2015, http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2015/06/11/multiracial-in-america/.
2. Charmaine L. Wijeyesinghe, “The Intersectional Model of Multiracial Identity: Integrating Multiracial Identity Theories and Intersectional Perspectives on Social Identity,” in New Perspectives on Racial Identity Development: Integrating Emerging Frameworks, 2nd ed., ed. Charmaine L. Wijeyesinghe and Bailey W. Jackson III (New York: New York University Press, 2012), 81–107.
3. Charles A. Gallagher, “Color Blindness: An Obstacle to Racial Justice?,” in Mixed Messages: Multiracial Identities in the “Color-Blind” Era, ed. David L. Brunsma (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2006), 103–116.
4. Maria P. P. Root, ed., Racially Mixed People in America (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1992).
5. This chapter will be focused primarily on biracial Black-White identity development. For information regarding Black-Japanese identity, see Christine Catherine Iijima Hall, “The Ethnic Identity of Racially Mixed People: A Study of Black-Japanese” (doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1980). For information regarding Asian-White experiences, see George Kitahara Kich, “The Developmental Process of Asserting a Biracial, Bicultural Identity,” in Root, Racially Mixed People in America, 304–317.
6. Maria P. P. Root, “Within, Between, and Beyond Race,” in Root, Racially Mixed People in America, 3–11.
7. Paul R. Spickard, “The Illogic of American Racial Categories,” in Root, Racially Mixed People in America, 15.
8. See F. James Davis, chap. 1, “The Nation’s Rule,” and chap. 2, “Miscegenation and Beliefs,” in Who Is Black? One Nation’s Definition (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991), 17–30.
9. Kerry Ann Rockquemore and David L. Brunsma, Beyond Black: Biracial Identity in America (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008), 18.
10. Lise Funderberg, Black, White, Other: Biracial Americans Talk About Race and Identity (New York: Quill, 1994), 186.
11. Davis, Who Is Black?, 12.
12. For more details, see Davis, Who Is Black?, 10–11.
13. Rockquemore and Brunsma, Beyond Black, Kindle edition, location 91.
14. Frank Newport, “In U.S., 87% Approve of Black-White Marriage, vs. 4% in 1958,” Gallup, July 25, 2013, http://www.gallup.com/poll/163697/approve-marriage-blacks-whites.aspx.
15. Pew Research Center, chap. 4 of The Rise of Asian Americans, updated ed., April 4, 2013, http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/06/19/the-rise-of-asian-americans/.
16. Newport, “In U.S., 87% Approve of Black-White Marriage, vs. 4% in 1958.”
17. Erica Chito Childs, “Black and White: Family Opposition to Becoming Multiracial,” in Brunsma, Mixed Messages, 233–246.
18. Imitation of Life was released in 1934 and remade in 1959. It follows the lives of two women, one White and one Black, and their daughters. The Black mother is heartbroken when her light-skinned daughter disavows her and chooses to pass for White.
19. Jewelle Taylor Gibbs, “Biracial Adolescents,” in Children of Color: Psychological Interventions with Minority Youth, ed. Jewelle Taylor Gibbs and Larke Nahme Huang (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989), 322–350.
20. Ana Mari Cauce et al., “Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Social Adjustment of Biracial Youth,” in Root, Racially Mixed People in America, 207–222.
21. Ibid., 220.
22. For a review of the 1980s and 1990s literature, see Jewelle Taylor Gibbs and Alice M. Hines, “Negotiating Ethnic Identity: Issues for Black-White Biracial Adolescents,” in Root, Racially Mixed People in America, 223–238. See also Lynda D. Field, “Piecing Together the Puzzle: Self-Concept and Group Identity in Biracial Black/White Youth,” in The Multiracial Experience: Racial Borders as the New Frontier, ed. Maria P. P. Root (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 211–226.
23. Rockquemore and Brunsma, Beyond Black, 36.
24. Ibid., 39.
25. Ibid.
26. Maria P. P. Root, “The Multiracial Experience: Racial Borders as a Significant Frontier in Race Relations,” in Root, The Multiracial Experience, xiii–xxviii.
27. Rockquemore and Brunsma, Beyond Black.
28. Ibid., 41.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid., 43.
31. Ibid., 44.
32. Ibid., 45.
33. Ibid., 47.
34. Ibid., 69.
35. Ibid., 95.
36. Ibid., 49.
37. Ibid., 49–50.
38. Ibid., 60.
39. Ibid.
40. Nikki Khanna, Biracial in America: Forming and Performing Racial Identity (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2011).
41. Ibid., 82.
42. Ibid., 75.
43. Ibid., 85.
44. See Maureen T. Reddy, Crossing the Color Line: Race, Parenting, and Culture (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994), chap. 3.
45. Robin Lin Miller and Mary-Jane Rotheram-Borus, “Growing Up Biracial in the United States,” in Race, Ethnicity, and Self: Identity in Multicultural Perspective, ed. Elizabeth Pathy Salett and Diane R. Koslow (Washington, DC: National Multicultural Institute, 1994), 143–169.
46. Khanna, Biracial in America, 85.
47. Ibid., 88.
48. Ibid., 100.
49. Ibid., 109.
50. Ibid., 104.
51. Ibid., 111.
52. Kerry Ann Rockquemore, Tracy Laszloffy, and Julia Noveske, “It All Starts at Home: Racial Socialization in Multiracial Families,” in Brunsma, Mixed Messages, 206.
53. Wendy Wang, “Interracial Marriage: Who Is ‘Marrying Out?’,” Fact Tank, Pew Research Center, June 12, 2015, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/06/12/interracial-marriage-who-is-marrying-out/.
54. Rockquemore, Laszloffy, and Noveske, “It All Starts at Home.”
55. Miller and Rotheram-Borus, “Growing Up Biracial in the United States.”
56. Even when White people are demeaned as “nigger lovers,” it is the association with Blackness that is the source of the insult, not Whiteness itself.
57. Miller and Rotheram-
Borus, “Growing Up Biracial in the United States,” 156.
58. Marguerite Davol, Black, White, Just Right! (Morton Grove, IL: A. Whitman, 1993).
59. Rockquemore, Laszloffy, and Noveske, “It All Starts at Home,” 210.
60. Funderburg, Black, White, Other, 367.
61. Karen Valby, “The Realities of Raising a Kid of a Different Race,” Time.com, 2015, http://time.com/the-realities-of-raising-a-kid-of-a-different-race/.
62. Danielle E. Godon, Whitney F. Green, and Patricia G. Ramsey, “Transracial Adoptees: The Search for Birth Family and the Search for Self,” Adoption Quarterly 17, no. 1 (2014): 1–27.
63. Ibid., 14.
64. Ibid., 17.
65. Ibid.
66. Valby, “The Realities of Raising a Kid of a Different Race.”
67. Ibid.
68. Ibid.
69. Ibid.
70. “Growing Up ‘White,’ Transracial Adoptee Learned to Be Black,” Weekend Edition Sunday, NPR, January 26, 2014, http://www.npr.org/2014/01/26/266434175/growing-up-white-transracial-adoptee-learned-to-be-black.
71. Ibid.
Chapter 10: Embracing a Cross-Racial Dialogue
1. In the same way, we need to break the silence about sexism, anti-Semitism, heterosexism and homophobia, classism, ageism, and ableism. In my experience, once we learn to break the silence about one ism, the lessons learned transfer to other isms.
2. Christine Sleeter, “White Racism,” Multicultural Education 1, no. 4 (Spring 1994): 6.
3. Ibid., 8.
4. Kirsten Mullen, “Subtle Lessons in Racism,” USA Weekend, November 6–8, 1992, 10–11.
5. The Color of Fear, produced and directed by Lee Mun Wah (Oakland, CA: Stir-Fry Productions, 1994), video.
6. Jean Baker Miller, “Connections, Disconnections, and Violations,” Work in Progress, no. 33 (Wellesley, MA: Stone Center Working Paper Series, 1988).
7. Beverly Daniel Tatum, “Racial Identity and Relational Theory: The Case of Black Women in White Communities,” Work in Progress, no. 63 (Wellesley, MA: Stone Center Working Paper Series, 1992).
8. An in-depth discussion of the relational implications of working against racism for these female educators can be found in Beverly Daniel Tatum and Elizabeth G. Knaplund, “Outside the Circle: The Relational Implications for White Women Working Against Racism,” Work in Progress, no. 78 (Wellesley, MA: Stone Center Working Paper Series, 1996).
9. Parker Palmer, The Active Life: Wisdom for Work, Creativity, and Caring (New York: HarperCollins, 1990), 115.
Epilogue: Signs of Hope, Sites of Progress
1. “A Statement from Joseph Benigno ’16 Student Body President,” TAMU Student Government Association, February 11, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yo9sZlmdzBU.
2. See https://www.atlantafriendshipinitiative.com for more information.
3. Maria Saporta, “Business Leaders Launch Atlanta Friendship Initiative,” Atlanta Business Chronicle, October 28, 2016, http://www.bizjournals.com/atlanta/news/2016/10/28/business-leaders-launch-atlanta-friendship.html.
4. See www.twotowns.org for more information.
5. See www.winterinstitute.org for more information.
6. Barry Yeoman, “Telling Stories, Breaking Barriers,” Mindful, August 11, 2016, 58.
7. Ibid., 62.
8. See http://winterinstitute.org/community-relations/the-welcome-table/ for a video interview with Dr. Glisson.
9. See http://www.racialequityresourceguide.org/TRHTSummit for more information and a resource guide.
10. La June Montgomery Tabron, “The W. K. Kellogg Foundation’s Deepening Commitment to Racial Equity,” Liberal Education 102, no. 4 (Fall 2016): 22–45.
11. Ibid., 28.
12. Gail C. Christopher, “The Time for Truth, Racial Healing and Transformation Is Now,” Liberal Education 102, no. 4 (Fall 2016): 8–15.
13. “Day of Dialogue Welcome Ceremony,” fandmcollege, October 6, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-azgbWIWFjk.
14. See http://www.difficultdialogues.org for more information.
15. “Mission, History, Goals & Highlights,” Michigan Community Scholars Program, University of Michigan, https://lsa.umich.edu/mcsp/about-us/mission-history-goals-highlights.html.
16. David Schoem and Penny A. Pasque, “The Michigan Community Scholars Program: Engaging the Whole of Service-Learning, Diversity, and Learning Communities,” in Joseph A. Galura et al., Engaging the Whole of Service-Learning, Diversity, and Learning Communities (Ann Arbor, MI: OCSL Press at the University of Michigan, 2004), 33–50.
17. Rebecca Dora Christensen, “‘Making a Difference’: Residential Learning Community Students’ Trajectories Toward Promoting Social Justice” (doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 2016).
18. See https://igr.umich.edu/about for more information.
19. Ximena Zúñiga et al., Intergroup Dialogue in Higher Education: Meaningful Learning About Social Justice, ASHE Higher Education Report Series, vol. 32, no. 4 (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2007).
20. “Intergroup Dialogues,” The Program on Intergroup Relations, University of Michigan, https://igr.umich.edu/article/intergroup-dialogues.
21. Kelly E. Maxwell, Aaron Traxler-Ballew, and K. Foula Dimopoulos, “Intergroup Dialogue and the Michigan Community Scholars Program: A Partnership for Meaningful Engagement,” in Galura et al., Engaging the Whole of Service-Learning, Diversity, and Learning Communities, 122.
22. “Students Talk About the Minor in Intergroup Relations Education,” The Program on Intergroup Relations, University of Michigan, https://igr.umich.edu/article/students-talk-about-minor-intergroup-relations.
23. “Reflections from IGR’s Graduate Student Instructors,” The Program on Intergroup Relations, University of Michigan, https://igr.umich.edu/article/reflections-igrs-graduate-student-instructors.
24. Kristie A. Ford, ed., Facilitating Change Through Intergroup Dialogue: Social Justice Advocacy in Practice (New York: Routledge, forthcoming), chap. 1.
25. Ibid., chap. 2.
26. Ibid.
27. I am paraphrasing the quote “I touch the future. I teach,” which is attributed to Christa McAuliffe, the first American educator selected to travel to outer space on a NASA mission in 1986. Tragically, the space vessel exploded shortly after liftoff and she and the other astronauts on board were killed.
INDEX
AAC&U. See Association of American Colleges and Universities
academic achievement
intelligence theories and, 162–164, 280–281
oppositional identity development and, 144–149
role models for, 149–151
test-taking performance, 159–160
active racism, 91
activism
of American Indians and Alaska Natives, 260–261
for children, 128–129
See also Black Lives Matter
adolescence, identity development in
of Black Americans, 132–163
of boys, 138–139
cafeteria in, 77, 131–132
complexity of, 100–101
of girls, 137–138, 160
group identity and, 158–164
online racial discrimination and, 140–141
of oppositional identity, 142–149
in prepuberty, 134–135
puberty and, 100, 132, 134–138, 292
racism and, 135, 141–144, 148, 151–152, 154–156, 158
of REC identity, 133–142, 145–146, 152
role models for, 149–151
stereotypes and, 137–138, 142–144, 148–150, 158–164
timing of, 100–101
of White Americans, 131–132, 134–138, 140, 142–149, 152–155, 160–163, 189
adoptive families, 272, 321–327
adulthood, racial identity in
of Black Americans, 165–181
in college years, 165–171
corporate cafeteria and, 179–181
immersion
º and, 165–167
late adulthood, 178–179
middle adulthood, 175–177
parenting and, 175–178
REC identity, 166–167, 174–179
White Americans and, 168–170, 175–178, 180–181
affirmative action
aversive racism and, 220–222, 224, 226–229
backlash against, 9–11, 209–210, 220
benefits of, 228–229
Black Americans and, 10–11, 209–215, 217–226, 229
color-blindness and, 220–228
employment-based, 216–232
goal-oriented, 216–217, 219–220, 229–232
in higher education, 9–11, 216
overview of, 215–220
process-oriented, 217–219
quotas, 215–216
racial discrimination and, 209–215, 217, 219, 221, 223–225, 230
selection criteria, 230–231
Supreme Court and, 11, 216
White Americans and, 9–11, 209–210, 214–220, 228–232
Affirming Diversity (Nieto and Bode), 266
AFI. See Atlanta Friendship Initiative
African Americans, use of the term, 95
See also Black Americans
“Age, Race, Class, and Sex: Women Redefining Difference” (Lorde), 103
AICF. See American Indian College Fund
Alaska Natives. See American Indians and Alaska Natives
Alderfer, Clayton, 206
Alexander, Michelle, 14–16
Allen, Walter, 169–170
Alliance of White Anti-Racists Everywhere—Los Angeles (AWARE-LA), 207
alt-right, 56
American Indian College Fund (AICF), 262–263
American Indians and Alaska Natives
activism of, 260–261
anti–affirmative action backlash and, 10
critical consciousness and, 128–129
demographics, 256–258
diversity of, 236–237, 257
education of, 259–261, 263–268
familism of, 258
Inupiaq, 267–268
losses of, 258–262
mascots, 264–266
police violence against, 46–48
poverty of, 258–259, 261–262
racial identity development of, 235–236, 266–267
residential segregation and, 7–8
stereotypes of, 84, 262–268
use of the term, 96, 256–258
Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria? Page 51
