El Norte

by Carrie Gibson

  130Letter of Sebastián Vizcaíno Written from Monterey on December 28, 1602, and Sent to New Spain by the Almiranta (Thomas W. Norris, 1949), Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

  131Starr, California: A History, pp. 29–31.

  132Gibson, Spain in America, p. 186; Thomas E. Sheridan, Arizona: A History (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2012), p. 41.

  133Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, pp. 183–84.

  134James Brooke, “Conquistador Statue Stirs Hispanic Pride and Indian Rage,” New York Times, February 9, 1998, http://www.nytimes.com/1998/02/09/us/conquistador-statue-stirs-hispanic-pride-and-indian-rage.html.

  135The work was done by sculptor Jon Sherrill Houser. See Gregory Rodriguez, “El Paso Confronts Its Messy Past,” Los Angeles Times, March 25, 2007, online, http://articles.latimes.com/2007/mar/25/opinion/op-rodriguez25.

  136Lee Goodwin, “Heritage and Change Through Community Celebrations: A Photographic Essay,” Western Historical Quarterly 29, no. 2 (1998): 215–23.

  137See, for instance, http://www.elsantuariodechimayo.us/Santuario/Fiesta.html or https://www.espanolafiesta.org/

  Chapter 4: Fort Mose, Florida

  1E. G. R. Taylor (ed.), The Original Writings & Correspondence of the Two Richard Hakluyts, vol. 2 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1935), pp. 211–13.

  2Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World., pp. 23–26.

  3“Charter to Sir Walter Raleigh: 1584,” http://avalon.law.yale.edu/16th_century/raleigh.asp (accessed May 20, 2017).

  4Pedro de Zúñiga to Philip III, January 24, 1607, in Philip Barbour (ed.), The Jamestown Voyages Under the First Charter, 1606–09, vols. 1 and 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press for the Hakluyt Society, 1969), vol. 1, pp. 65, 70.

  5Ibid., pp. 117–19.

  6Ibid., pp. 255–56.

  7Barbour, The Jamestown Voyages Under the First Charter, 1606–09, vol. 2, p. 292.

  8“Report of Francisco Fernández de Écija,” ibid., pp. 293, 305, 309.

  9Ibid., p. 314.

  10Linda A Newson, “The Democgraphic Impact of Colonization,” in Victor Bulmer-Thomas, John H Coatsworth, and Roberto Cortés-Conde (eds.), The Cambridge Economic History of Latin America, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 152-53.

  11Alan Taylor, American Colonies: The Settling of North America (New York: Penguin, 2001), p. 130.

  12Marilyn C. Baseler, “Asylum for Mankind”: America, 1607–1800 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998), p. 32.

  13Taylor, American Colonies, p. 136.

  14Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, pp. 81–83.

  15John Smith, “The Description of Virginia,” in Edward Arber (ed.), Capt. John Smith: Works (Westminster, U.K.: Archibald Constable, 1895), pp. 56–63.

  16Ibid., pp. 62, 64.

  17Taylor, American Colonies, p. 129.

  18John Locke, Two Treatises of Government (London: Whitmore and Fenn, 1821), pp. 213–17.

  19Timothy Paul Grady, Anglo-Spanish Rivalry in Colonial South-East America, 1650–1725 (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2010), p. 21. For more on the connections between Puritans and Catholics in the Americans, see Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra, Puritan Conquistadors: Iberianizing the Atlantic, 1550-1700 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2006).

  20Smith, “The Description of Virginia,” p. 64.

  21Quoted in Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 187.

  22Taylor, American Colonies, pp. 160–61.

  23Ibid., p. 137.

  24James E. McWilliams, Building the Bay Colony: Local Economy and Culture in Early Massachusetts (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2007), p. 9.

  25Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 188.

  26Beezley and Meyer, The Oxford History of Mexico, p. 109.

  27Lawrence W. Kennedy, Planning the City upon a Hill: Boston Since 1630 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), p. 251.

  28Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 74.

  29Jerald T. Milanich, “Franciscan Missions and Native Peoples in Spanish Florida,” in Hudson and Chaves Tesser, The Forgotten Centuries, pp. 280–82.

  30Kathleen A. Deagan, “Mestizaje in Colonial St. Augustine,” Ethnohistory 20, no. 1 (1973): 55; Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 86.

  31Marvin T. Smith, “Aboriginal Depopulation in the Postcontact Southeast,” in Hudson and Chaves Tesser, The Forgotten Centuries, pp. 265–66.

  32Deagan, “Mestizaje in Colonial St. Augustine,” p. 58.

  33Grady, Anglo-Spanish Rivalry in Colonial South-East America, 1650–1725, pp. 22–23.

  34Taylor, American Colonies, p. 224.

  35Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, http://www.slavevoyages.org/voyages/PrMJBIJq (accessed March 2, 2016).

  36Margaret Ellen Newell, “Indian Slavery in Colonial New England,” in Alan Gallay (ed.), Indian Slavery in Colonial America (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009), p. 33.

  37Ibid., pp. 34–35.

  38C. S. Everett, “‘They Shalbe Slaves for Their Lives,’” in Gallay, Indian Slavery in Colonial America, pp. 69–70.

  39Alan Gallay, “South Carolina’s Entrance into the Indian Slave Trade,” in Indian Slavery in Colonial America, pp. 111, 135.

  40Grady. Anglo-Spanish Rivalry in Colonial South-East America, 1650–1725, p. 92.

  41Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 91.

  42Gallay, “South Carolina’s Entrance into the Indian Slave Trade,” p. 118.

  43Ibid., p. 125.

  44Grady, Anglo-Spanish Rivalry in Colonial South-East America, 1650–1725, p. 63.

  45Galley, “South Carolina’s Entrance into the Indian Slave Trade,” p. 140.

  46Grady, Anglo-Spanish Rivalry in Colonial South-East America, 1650–1725, p. 55.

  47Ibid., pp. 57–58.

  48William C. Foster (ed.), The La Salle Expedition on the Mississippi River: A Lost Manuscript of Nicolas De La Salle, 1682 (Austin: Texas State Historical Association, 2003), pp. xii, 6, 93.

  49Ibid., p. 8.

  50Taylor, American Colonies, p. 382.

  51See Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, pp. 110–12.

  52Ibid., p. 116.

  53Bannon, The Spanish Borderlands Frontier, 1513–1821, p. 102.

  54Allan Greer (ed.), The Jesuit Relations: Natives and Missionaries in Seventeenth-Century North America (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2000), pp. 1–19.

  55Ibid., pp. 187–88.

  56Thomas R. Hester, “Texas and Northwestern Mexico: An Overview,” in David Hurst Thomas (ed.), Columbian Consequences: Archaeological and Historical Perspectives on the Spanish Borderland West (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989), pp. 197–98.

  57Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 113.

  58Ibid., p. 207; Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, pp. 113–15.

  59Taylor, American Colonies, p. 384.

  60Grady, Anglo-Spanish Rivalry in Colonial South-East America, 1650–1725, p. 126.

  61Claudio Saunt, “‘The English Has Now a Mind to Make Slaves of Them All’: Creeks, Seminoles, and the Problem of Slavery,” American Indian Quarterly 2, no. 1/2 (1998): 158.

  62Grady, Anglo-Spanish Rivalry in Colonial South-East America, 1650–1725, pp. 110, 115–18; Saunt, “‘The English Has Now a Mind to Make Slaves of Them All,’” p. 163.

  63F. Todd Smith, Louisiana and the Gulf South Frontier, 1500–1821 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2014), p. 76.

  64Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 170; Smith, Louisiana and the Gulf South Frontier, 1500–1821, p. 76; Saunt, “‘The English Has Now a Mind to Make Slaves of Them All,’” p. 161.

  65Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 190.

  66The settlement in this part of Louisiana was bound up in a scheme proffered by a Scot called John Law, who stoked land speculation in what became known as the “Mississippi bubble.” For more on this, see Smith, Louisiana and the G
ulf South Frontier, 1500–1821, pp. 78–83.

  67Juliana Barr, “Beyond Their Control: Spaniards in Native Texas,” in Jesús F. de la Teja and Ross Frank (eds.), Choice, Persuasion, and Coercion: Social Control on Spain’s North American Frontiers (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2005), p. 158.

  68Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 119.

  69Ibid., pp. 114, 120.

  70Ibid., p. 121.

  71Ibid., pp. 124–25.

  72Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 209.

  73Thomas E. Chávez, “The Segesser Hide Paintings: History, Discovery, Art,” Great Plains Quarterly 10, no. 2 (1990): 98; Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 209. For more on Spanish-Ute relations, see Ned Blackhawk, Violence over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006).

  74See Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, pp. 110–12; Chávez, “The Segesser Hide Paintings,” p. 99.

  75The story of this attack was painted on animal skins—probably bison or elk hides—by an unknown artist, giving a tapestry-like depiction of the fight between the Spanish and the French and Oto, Pawnee, Apache, and Pueblo Indians. There were other such skins and by the 1750s they fell into the possession of a Swiss Jesuit, Philipp von Segesser von Brunegg, who had spent time in Sonora. Today Segesser I and II are in the Palace of Governors/New Mexico History Museum in Santa Fe, New Mexico. See Chávez, “The Segesser Hide Paintings,” p. 99; Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, pp. 210–11.

  76Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, pp. 114, 125.

  77Kanellos et al., Herencia, p. 60.

  78Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, pp. 144–45; Charles R. Porter Jr., Spanish Water, Anglo Water: Early Development in San Antonio (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2009), pp. 73–74.

  79Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, pp. 144–45.

  80Porter, Spanish Water, Anglo Water, pp. 70–73.

  81Antonio de Benavides to Madrid, November 2, 1725, Archivo General de Indias, Seville (hereafter AGI), Santo Domingo, Legajo 844.

  82Jane Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999), p. 25. For more on the differences in the development of Anglo and Hispanic slavery, see Frank Tannenbaum, Slave and Citizen: The Classic Comparative Study of Race Relations in the Americas (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992).

  83Antonio de Benavides to Madrid, November 2, 1725, AGI, Santo Domingo, Legajo 844; Jane Landers, “Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose: A Free Black Town in Spanish Colonial Florida,” American Historical Review 95, no. 1 (1990): 15.

  84Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida, pp. 26–27.

  85Antonio de Benavides, October 15, 1728, AGI, Santo Domingo, Legajo 844.

  86James Edward Oglethorpe, A New and Accurate Account of the Provinces of South-Carolina and Georgia: With Many Curious and Useful Observations on the Trade, Navigation and Plantations of Great-Britain, Compared with Her Most Powerful Maritime Neighbours in Ancient and Modern Times (London: J. Worrall, 1733), p. 31.

  87Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 136.

  88Francisco del Moral Sánchez, March 2, 1736, AGI, Santo Domingo, Legajo 844.

  89Herbert Bolton (ed.), Arredondo’s Historical Proof of Spain’s Title to Georgia: A Contribution to the History of One of the Spanish Borderlands (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1925), p. 183.

  90Harvey Jackson, “The Darien Antislavery Petition of 1739 and the Georgia Plan,” William and Mary Quarterly 34, no. 4 (1977): 619.

  91Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida, p. 28.

  92DuVal and DuVal, Interpreting a Continent, pp. 179–80.

  93Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida, pp. 29–30.

  94Rodney E. Baine, “General James Oglethorpe and the Expedition Against St. Augustine,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 84, no. 2 (2000): 202.

  95Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida, p. 35.

  96Ibid., p. 36.

  97Ibid., p. 37.

  98Landers, “Gracia Real De Santa Teresa De Mose,” p. 20.

  99Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida, p. 36.

  100Ibid., p. 38.

  101Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 136.

  102Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida, pp. 47–49.

  103Ibid., p. 50.

  104Ibid., p. 46.

  105Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 137.

  Chapter 5: New Madrid, Missouri

  1Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 426.

  2For a more detailed breakdown on immigrants, see Bernard Bailyn, The Peopling of British North America: An Introduction (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1986); and Taylor, American Colonies.

  3Herbert S. Klein, A Population History of the United States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 64.

  4Magnus Mörner and Harold Sims, Adventurers and Proletarians: The Story of Migrants in Latin America (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1977), p. 17. John Elliott puts sixteenth-century immigration at around 200,000 to 250,000; see Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 52.

  5Herbert S. Klein and Ben Vinson III (eds.), African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 273.

  6Gilbert C. Din, “Empires Too Far: The Demographic Limitations of Three Imperial Powers in the Eighteenth-Century Mississippi Valley,” Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association 50, no. 3 (2009): 270.

  7Bannon, The Spanish Borderlands Frontier, 1513–1821, p. 172.

  8Ibid., p. 169.

  9Ibid., pp. 179–80.

  10A good starting point on the Bourbon reforms can be found in Gabriel B. Paquette, Enlightenment, Governance and Reform in Spain and Its Empire, 1759–1808 (Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).

  11David J. Weber, Bárbaros: Spaniards and Their Savages in the Age of Enlightenment (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2005), p. 3.

  12Bannon, The Spanish Borderlands Frontier, 1513–1821, pp. 154–55.

  13Ibid., p. 182.

  14Quoted in Weber, Bárbaros, pp. 181–82.

  15Quoted ibid., p. 91.

  16Allan J. Kuethe, “The Development of the Cuban Military as a Sociopolitical Elite, 1763–83,” Hispanic American Historical Review 61, no. 4 (1981): 696–701.

  17Ibid., pp. 697, 701; Barbara H. Stein and Stanley J. Stein, Edge of Crisis: War and Trade in the Spanish Atlantic, 1789–1808 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009), p. 6.

  18Baron de Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws (Ontario: Batoche, 2001), ProQuest online access, p. 393.

  19Adam Smith and Jonathan B. Wight (ed.), An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Petersfield, U.K.: Harriman House, 2007), eBook Collection, EBSCOhost, p. 369. For more on British thinking on Spain, see Gabriel B. Paquette, “The Image of Imperial Spain in British Political Thought, 1750–1800,” Bulletin of Spanish Studies 81, no. 2 (2004): 187–214.

  20Abbé Raynal and J. Justamond (trans.), A Philosophical and Political History of the Settlements and Trade of the Europeans in the East and West Indies, vol. 2, book 4 (London: T. Cadell, 1776), p. 424.

  21Smith, Louisiana and the Gulf South Frontier, 1500–1821, p. 133.

  22Ibid., p. 131.

  23Ibid., p. 134.

  24Ibid., p. 133.

  25David Narrett, Adventurism and Empire: The Struggle for Mastery in the Louisiana-Florida Borderlands, 1762–1803 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), p. 35.

  26Ibid., p. 36.

  27Quoted ibid., p. 40.

  28Quoted ibid., pp. 41–42.

  29Deagan, “Mestizaje in Colonial St. Augustine,” p. 60.

  30Anonymous, Reflections on the Terms of Peace (London: G. Kearsly, 1763), p. 8.

  31Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida, pp. 66–67; J. Leitch Wright Jr., “Blacks in British East Florida,” Florida Histori
cal Quarterly 54, no. 4 (1976): 427.

  32Allman, Finding Florida, p. 51.

  33Patricia C. Griffin, “Blue Gold: Andrew Turnbull’s New Smyrna Plantation,” in Jane Landers (ed.), Colonial Plantations and Economy in Florida (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000), p. 40.

  34Andrew Turnbull to James Grant, July 1766, “A ‘Greek Community’ in British East Florida: Early Plans, Selecting a Site and Mosiquito [sic] Inlet, and Initaring [sic] the Smyrnea Settlement: Letters of Andrew Turnbull,” http://www.unf.edu/floridahistoryonline/Turnbull/letters/2.htm (accessed August 7, 2014).

  35Andrew Turnbull to Sir William Duncan, St. Augustine, November 26, 1766, “A ‘Greek Community’ in British East Florida.”

  36Griffin, “Blue Gold,” p. 44.

  37Ibid., p. 45.

  38Ibid., pp. 39, 56.

  39Ibid., p. 58.

  40Ibid., p. 62.

  41Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida, p. 68.

  42John Stuart to James Grant, August 4, 1769, “The Indian Frontier in British East Florida: Letters to Governor James Grant from British Soldiers and Indian Traders,” http://www.unf.edu/floridahistoryonline/Projects/Grant/index.html (accessed March 7, 2016).

  43Claudio Saunt, West of the Revolution: An Uncommon History of 1776 (New York: W. W. Norton, 2014), loc. 2746, Kindle version.

  44Anderson, Imagined Communities, p. 47.

  45Kathleen DuVal, Independence Lost: Lives on the Edge of the American Revolution (New York: Random House, 2015), loc. 1122, Kindle.

  46Ibid., loc. 368.

  47Antonia Sagredo, “Personal Connections Between Spaniards and Americans in the Revolutionary Era: Pioneers in Spanish-American Diplomacy,” in Legacy: Spain and the United States in the Age of Independence, compiled by Smithsonian Institution (Madrid: Julio Soto Impresor, 2007), pp. 46–48.

  48Ibid., p. 49.

  49Benjamin Franklin to the Committee of Secret Correspondence, January 4, 1777, National Archives: Founders Online, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-23-02-0066 (accessed May 24, 2017).

  50Reyes Calderón, “Spanish Financial Aid for the Process of Independence of the United States of America: Facts and Figures,” in Legacy, p. 66.

  51Ibid., pp. 68, 71. Reyes estimates that the total could be as high as 37 million reales; see pp. 74–75.