El Norte

by Carrie Gibson

  52The American Commissioners to the Committee for Foreign Affairs, October 7, 1777, National Archives: Founders Online, https://founders.archives.gov/?q=gardoqui&s=1111311111&sa=&r=12&sr= (accessed May 31, 2017).

  53DuVal, Independence Lost, loc. 2149.

  54Ibid., loc. 2290.

  55For more on the European context of the American Revolution, see Brendan Simms, Europe: The Struggle for Supremacy, From 1493 to the Present. (New York: Basic Books, 2014), chapter 3.

  56DuVal, Independence Lost, loc. 2376.

  57Quoted ibid., loc. 2462.

  58Ibid., loc. 2940–3076.

  59Ibid., loc. 3367–3802; Smith, Louisiana and the Gulf South Frontier, 1500–1821, p. 161.

  60Benjamin Franklin to the Conde d’Aranda, April 7, 1777, National Archives: Founders Online, https://founders.archives.gov/?q=franklin%20aranda&s=1111311111&sa=&r=11&sr= (accessed May 31, 2017).

  61Quoted in Sagredo, “Personal Connections Between Spaniards and Americans in the Revolutionary Era,” in Legacy, pp. 58–60.

  62Draft of Letter to John Jay, Explaining His Instructions, [October 17,] 1780, National Archives: Founders Online, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-02-02-0080 (accessed March 30, 2017); Sagredo, “Personal Connections Between Spaniards and Americans in the Revolutionary Era,” in Legacy, p. 61.

  63Benjamin Franklin to John Jay, October 2, 1780, in Henry Johnston (ed.), The Correspondence and Public Papers of John Jay, 1763-1781 (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1890), p. 432.

  64Instructions from Congress to Jay, February 15, 1781, ibid., p. 460; on Jay and West Florida, see Thomas E. Chávez, Spain and the Independence of the United States: An Intrinsic Gift (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2004), p. 210.

  65The Definitive Treaty of Peace 1783, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/paris.asp (accessed May 22, 2017).

  66DuVal, Independence Lost, loc. 4035–61.

  67“Dictamen reservado que el excelentísimo Señor Conde de Aranda dio al Rey sobre la independencia de las colonias inglesas después de haber hecho el tratado de paz ajustado en Paris el año de 1783,” in Mario Rodriguez, La revolución americana de 1776 y el mundo hispánico: ensayos y documentos (Madrid: Editorial Tecnos, 1976), p. 64.

  68Maya Jasanoff, Liberty’s Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011), p. 99.

  69Ibid., p. 108.

  70Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida, p. 69.

  71Ibid., pp. 74–75.

  72Ibid., pp. 76–80.

  73Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, pp. 347–52; Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 305.

  74Calloway, One Vast Winter Count, p. 373.

  75Kevin T. Barksdale, The Lost State of Franklin: America’s First Secession (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2009), p. 18.

  76Ibid., p. 31.

  77Ibid., p. 21.

  78George Henry Alden, “The State of Franklin,” American Historical Review 8, no. 2 (1903): 273; Barksdale, The Lost State of Franklin, p. 53.

  79Quoted in Barksdale, The Lost State of Franklin, p. 82.

  80Ibid., p. 146.

  81Ibid., p. 147.

  82Stephen Aron, American Confluence: The Missouri Frontier from Borderland to Border State (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009), p. 78.

  83Quoted in Barksdale, The Lost State of Franklin, pp. 150–52.

  84Ibid., pp. 138–39, 154, 159.

  85Andro Linklater, An Artist in Treason: The Extraordinary Double Life of General James Wilkinson (New York: Walker, 2009), p. 72.

  86Ibid., p. 85.

  87Barksdale, The Lost State of Franklin, p. 155.

  88Gilbert C. Din, Populating the Barrera: Spanish Immigration Efforts in Colonial Louisiana (Lafayette: University of Louisiana at Lafayette Press, 2014), p. 51.

  89Barksdale, The Lost State of Franklin, pp. 155–56.

  90Linklater, An Artist in Treason, pp. 4, 88.

  91For more on Wilkinson, see Narrett, Adventurism and Empire.

  92Ibid., p. 120.

  93Ibid., pp. 104, 125.

  94David Narrett, “Geopolitics and Intrigue: James Wilkinson, the Spanish Borderlands, and Mexican Independence,” William and Mary Quarterly 69, no. 1 (2012): 108.

  95Aron, American Confluence, p. 51.

  96Ibid., p. 3; “Report of the Various Indian Tribes Receiving Presents in the District of Ylinoa or Illinois, 1769,” in Louis Houck (ed.), The Spanish Regime in Missouri, vol. 1 (Chicago: R. R. Donnelley, 1909), p. 44.

  97Aron, American Confluence, p. 81.

  98“First Spanish Detailed Statistical Report of St. Louis and Ste. Genevieve—Dated 1772,” in Houck, The Spanish Regime in Missouri, vol. 1, p. 53.

  99“General Instructions of O’Reilly 17 February 1770,” ibid., p. 78.

  100Aron, American Confluence, pp. 58–60.

  101Ibid., p. 61.

  102Ibid., p. 59.

  103“Report of Captain Don Francisco Rui to His Excellency Conde de O’Reilly Concerning the Settlement of Ylinois, and the Manner and Custom of Giving Presents to and Receiving the Indians,” in Houck, The Spanish Regime in Missouri, vol. 1, p. 63.

  104Aron, American Confluence, p. 83.

  105DuVal, Independence Lost, loc. 5657, 5662,

  106Din, Populating the Barrera, p. 55.

  107“Protest of Governor Miró Against Grant to Col. George Morgan—Dated 1789,” in Houck, The Spanish Regime in Missouri, p. 276.

  108Quoted in DuVal, Independence Lost, loc. 5670.

  109“Protest of Governor Miró Against Grant to Col. George Morgan—Dated 1789,” p. 276.

  110Narrett, “Geopolitics and Intrigue,” p. 110.

  111Aron, American Confluence, p. 83; Houck, The Spanish Regime in Missouri, p. 309.

  112Din, “Empires Too Far,” p. 286.

  113Aron, American Confluence, p. 84.

  114“Statistical Census of New Madrid in 1797,” in Houck, The Spanish Regime in Missouri, pp. 397–98.

  115Francis Baily, Journal of a Tour in Unsettled Parts of North America in 1796 & 1797 (London: M. S. Rickerby, 1856), pp. 261–63.

  116Ibid., p. 264.

  Chapter 6: Nootka Sound, Canada

  1James Cook and John Rickman, Captain Cook’s Last Voyage to the Pacific Ocean on Discovery (London: E. Newbery, 1781), p. 233.

  2Ibid., p. 234.

  3Instructions, March 9, 1761, Archivo General De Simancas, Estado, Legajo 6618 (antiguo) in MSS Z-E 11, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.

  4Saunt, West of the Revolution, loc. 662.

  5Iris H. Engstrand, Robin Inglis, and Freeman M. Tovell (eds.) and Freeman M. Tovell (trans.), Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America, 1792: Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra and the Nookta Sound Controversy (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012), p. 24; Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 185.

  6Barry Gough, Fortune’s a River: The Collision of Empires in Northwest America (Madeira Park, B.C.: Harbour, 2007), pp. 115–16.

  7Engstrand et al., Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America, 1792, pp. 25–26; Gough, Fortune’s a River, p. 117.

  8Gough, Fortune’s a River, p. 109; Howard V. Evans, “The Nootka Sound Controversy in Anglo-French Diplomacy 1790,” Journal of Modern History 46, no. 4 (1974): 611.

  9Flores to Valdés, December 23, 1788, quoted in Warren L. Cook, Flood Tide of Empire: Spain and the Pacific Northwest, 1543–1819 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1973), p. 130.

  10Gough, Fortune’s a River, p. 112.

  11Ibid., p. 118.

  12Ibid., p. 119.

  13Ibid., p. 121.

  14Copy of the Memorial presented to the House of Commons, May 13, 1790, in John Meares, Voyages Made in the Years 1788 and 1789 from China to the North West Coast of America (London: John Meares, 1790), p. 450.

  15Engstrand et al., Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America, p. 27.

  16Flores to Valdés, December 23, 1788, quoted in Cook, Flood Tide of
Empire, pp. 186–87.

  17Engstrand et al., Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America, 1792, p. 27.

  18Ibid.

  19Ibid., p. 28.

  20Cook, Flood Tide of Empire, p. 275.

  21Copy of the Memorial presented to the House of Commons, May 13, 1790, pp. 444–45.

  22Ibid., p. 451.

  23Frederick J. Turner, “English Policy Toward America in 1790–1791,” American Historical Review 7, no. 4 (1902): 706–35.

  24Gough, Fortune’s a River, p. 123.

  25Ibid., p. 124; Derek Pethick, The Nootka Connection: Europe and the Northwest Coast 1790–1795 (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1980), p. 23.

  26Flores to Valdés, December 23, 1788, quoted in Cook, Flood Tide of Empire, p. 247.

  27Engstrand et al., Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America, 1792, p. 25.

  28Ibid., p. 64.

  29Ibid., p. 66.

  30Ibid., pp. 86–87.

  31Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 211.

  32Greg McLaughlin and Nancy H. Mayo (eds.), The Mapping of California as an Island: An Illustrated Checklist (Occasional Paper No 3, California Map Society, 1995), available online at http://collections.stanford.edu/bookreader-public/view.jsp?id=00021264#3; Vicente Virga and Ray Jones, California: Mapping the Golden State Through History (Guilford, Conn.: Morris Book, 2010), pp. 10–11.

  33Herbert Eugene Bolton (ed.), Kino’s Historical Memoir of Pimería Alta: A Contemporary Account of the Beginnings of California, Sonora, and Arizona, by Father Eusebio Francisco Kino, SJ, Pioneer Missionary Explorer, Cartographer, and Ranchman, 1683–1711, vol. 1 (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark, 1919), p. 55.

  34McLaughlin and Mayo, The Mapping of California as an Island.

  35See an example of maps at https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/wy568jc7945 and https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/hv371mq4870.

  36Saunt, West of the Revolution, loc. 127.

  37Starr, California: A History, p. 32.

  38David Hurst Thomas, “The Life and Times of Fr. Junípero Serra: A Pan-Borderlands Perspective,” Americas 71, no. 2 (2014): 191–92.

  39Quoted in Beebe and Senkewicz, Lands of Promise and Despair, pp. 111, 114; Starr, California: A History, p. 34.

  40Starr, California: A History, p. 34.

  41Ibid., p. 35; Beebe and Senkewicz, Lands of Promise and Despair, p. 114.

  42“Searching for Monterey,” in Beebe and Senkewicz, Lands of Promise and Despair, p. 128.

  43“A Beachhead at Monterey,” ibid., p. 137; Starr, California: A History, p. 35.

  44Starr, California: A History, p. 36; “A Beachhead at Monterey,” p. 137.

  45Junípero Serra to Juan Andrés, June 12, 1770, in Beebe and Senkewicz, Lands of Promise and Despair, p. 139.

  46Ibid., p. 140.

  47Lisa Conrad, “The Names Before the Names,” in Rebecca Solnit (ed.), Infinite City: A San Francisco Atlas (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), pp. 11–12; Lowell J. Bean, “Indians of California: Diverse and Complex Peoples,” California History 71, no. 3 (1992): 303.

  48Conrad, “The Names Before the Names,” pp. 10–11.

  49Taylor, American Colonies, p. 455.

  50Conrad, “The Names Before the Names,” p. 15.

  51Ibid., p. 16.

  52Taylor, American Colonies, p. 455.

  53Juan Crespí, “1769: The Santa Barbara Channel,” in Beebe and Senkewicz, Lands of Promise and Despair, p. 121.

  54Conrad, “The Names Before the Names,” p. 15.

  55Douglas Monroy, “The Creation and Re-Creation of Californio Society,” California History 76, no. 2/3 (1997): 179.

  56Gregory Rodriguez, Mongrels, Bastards, Orphans, and Vagabonds: Mexican Immigration and the Future of Race in America (New York: Pantheon Books, 2007), p. 67; Jack D. Forbes, “Black Pioneers: The Spanish-Speaking Afroamericans of the Southwest,” Phylon 27, no. 3 (1966): 236.

  57Ibid., p. 237.

  58Ibid., pp. 239–40.

  59Taylor, American Colonies, p. 461.

  60Ibid., p. 462.

  61Ibid., p. 461.

  62Luis Jayme to Rafael Verger, October 17, 1772, in Beebe and Senkewicz, Lands of Promise and Despair, p. 156.

  63Vicente Fuster, “Rebellion at San Diego,” in Beebe and Senkewicz, Lands of Promise and Despair, p. 186.

  64Vicente Fuster to Junípero Serra, 1775, ibid., p. 187.

  65Ibid., p. 191.

  66Starr, California: A History, p. 34.

  67“Adapting to the Governor’s Regulations,” in Beebe and Senkewicz, Lands of Promise and Despair, p. 217.

  68Charles N. Rudkin (trans.), The First French Expedition to California: Lapérouse in 1786 (Los Angeles: Glen Dawson, 1959), p. 13.

  69Ibid., p. 55.

  70Ibid., p. 64.

  71Robert H. Jackson and Edward Castillo, Indians, Franciscans, and Spanish Colonization: The Impact of the Mission System on California Indians (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995), p. 83.

  72Ibid., pp. 74–75.

  73Fuster, “Rebellion at San Gabriel,” pp. 247–48.

  74Steven Hackel, Junípero Serra: California’s Founding Father (New York: Hill and Wang, 2013), p. 238.

  75“The Death of Junípero Serra,” in Beebe and Senkewicz, Lands of Promise and Despair, p. 226.

  76Jackson and Castillo, Indians, Franciscans, and Spanish Colonization, p. 8.

  77Starr, California: A History, pp. 29, 39.

  78Ibid., p. 39.

  79For a much more detailed account of this expedition, see Saunt, West of the Revolution, loc. 1259-1451.

  80Starr, California: A History, pp. 41–42.

  81“1797: Treatment of the Indians at Mission San Francisco,” in Beebe and Senkewicz, Lands of Promise and Despair, p. 260.

  82Frank, “Demographic, Social, and Economic Change in New Mexico,” p. 66.

  83Gough, Fortune’s a River, pp. 161–64.

  Chapter 7: New Orleans, Louisiana

  1Smith, Louisiana and the Gulf South Frontier, 1500–1821, p. 85.

  2Emily Clark, “Elite Designs and Popular Uprisings: Building and Rebuilding in New Orleans, 1721, 1788, 2005,” Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historiques 33, no. 2 (2007): 175.

  3Antonio María de Bucareli to Julian de Arriaga, April 1, 1767, AGI, Santo Domingo, Legajo 2542A.

  4Marques de Grimaldi to Julian de Arriaga, May 13, 1767, ibid.

  5Carlos Marichal and Matilde Souto Mantecon, “Silver and Situados: New Spain and the Financing of the Spanish Empire in the Caribbean in the Eighteenth Century,” Hispanic American Historical Review 74, no. 4 (1994): 590–91.

  6Narrett, Adventurism and Empire, p. 47.

  7Antonio María de Bucareli to Julian de Arriaga. December 4, 1768, AGI, Santo Domingo, Legajo 2542A; Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 150; Narrett, Adventurism and Empire, pp. 51–52.

  8Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 150.

  9Report of August 18, 1769, Records and Deliberations of the Cabildo: Book 1, New Orleans Public Library City Archives, pp. 1–2.

  10Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 151.

  11Bannon, The Spanish Borderlands Frontier, 1513–1821, p. 192.

  12Proclamation by O’Reilly regulating the establishment of inns, pool rooms, and taverns, September 21, 1769, Louisiana State Museum Archives, Record Group 4, Accession number 1890.1.

  13Jane Landers, “Rebellion and Royalism in Spanish Florida: The French Revolution on Spain’s Northern Colonial Frontier,” in David Barry Gaspar and David Patrick Geggus (eds.), A Turbulent Time: The French Revolution and the Greater Caribbean (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), p. 158.

  14Kimberly S. Hanger, “Conflicting Loyalties: The French Revolution and Free People of Color in Spanish New Orleans,” ibid., p. 179.

  15Gilbert C. Din, Spaniards, Planters, and Slaves: The Spanish Regulation of Slavery in Louisiana, 1763–1803 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1999), p. 154.


  16Hanger, “Conflicting Loyalties,” p. 180.

  17Ibid., p. 181.

  18Jean-Pierre Le Glaunec, “Slave Migrations in Spanish Louisiana and Early American Louisiana: New Sources and New Estimates,” Louisiana History 46, no. 2 (2005): 188.

  19Ibid., pp. 195–96; Jack D. L. Holmes, “The Abortive Slave Revolt at Pointe Coupée, Louisiana, 1795,” Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association 11, no. 4 (1970): 342.

  20Kimberly S. Hanger, “Patronage, Property and Persistence: The Emergence of a Free Black Elite in Spanish New Orleans,” in Jane Landers (ed.), Against the Odds: Free Blacks in the Slave Societies of the Americas (London: Frank Cass, 1996), p. 57; Andrew McMichael, Atlantic Loyalties: Americans in Spanish West Florida, 1785–1810 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2008), p. 17.

  21Din, Spaniards, Planters, and Slaves, p. 39.

  22Mary Williams, “Private Lives and Public Orders: Regulating Sex, Marriage, and Legitimacy in Spanish Colonial Louisiana,” in Cécile Vidal (ed.), Spanish Louisiana in Atlantic Contexts: Nexus of Imperial Transactions and International Relations (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), pp. 148–49.

  23Ibid., p. 152.

  24Carolyn Morrow Long, A New Orleans Voudou Priestess: The Legend and Reality of Marie Laveau (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2006), loc. 844, Kindle.

  25Records and Deliberations of the Cabildo: Book 3, June 1, 1786, New Orleans Public Library City Archives, pp. 105–12.

  26Rules issued by Baron de Carondelet quoted in Ned Sublette, The World That Made New Orleans: From Spanish Silver to Congo Square (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, Lawrence Hill Books, 2009), pp. 171–72.

  27Holmes, “The Abortive Slave Revolt at Pointe Coupée, Louisiana, 1795,” pp. 342, 351–53; Ulysses S. Ricard, “The Pointe Coupée Slave Conspiracy of 1791,” Proceedings of the Meeting of the French Colonial Historical Society 15 (1992): 118.

  28Narrett, Adventurism and Empire, p. 157; Holmes, “The Abortive Slave Revolt at Pointe Coupée, Louisiana, 1795,” p. 357.

  29McMichael, Atlantic Loyalties, pp. 15–17.

  30Raymond A. Young, “Pinckney’s Treaty—A New Perspective,” Hispanic American Historical Review 43, no. 4 (1963): 530.

  31Gilbert C. Din, “Spanish Control over a Multiethnic Society: Louisiana, 1763–1803,” in de la Teja and Frank, Choice, Persuasion, and Coercion, p. 64; Narrett, Adventurism and Empire, p. 231. See the full text of the treaty at http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/sp1795.asp.