El Norte

by Carrie Gibson

  32James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, February 29, 1796, Founders Online: National Archives, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-28-02-0488 (accessed March 30, 2017).

  33Smith, Louisiana and the Gulf South Frontier, 1500–1821, p. 171.

  34James E. Lewis, The American Union and the Problem of Neighborhood: The United States and the Collapse of the Spanish Empire, 1783–1829 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), pp. 4, 8.

  35James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, March 6, 1796, Founders Online: National Archives, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-16-02-0167 (accessed March 30, 2017).

  36Weber, Bárbaros, p. 1; American State Papers: Indian Affairs, class II, vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: Gales and Seaton, 1832), pp. 543–44.

  37Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 212.

  38Aron, American Confluence, p. 107; Narrett, Adventurism and Empire, p. 264.

  39Lewis, The American Union and the Problem of Neighborhood, pp. 24–25, 28.

  40Jerry p. Sanson, “‘Scour[ing] at the Mortar of the Constitution’: Louisiana and the Fundamental Law of the United States,” Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association 48, no. 1 (2007): 8–9.

  41Ibid., p. 10.

  42Quoted in Bernard Bailyn, To Begin the World Anew: The Genius and Ambiguities of the American Founders (New York: Vintage Books, 2004), p. 41.

  43Pedro Cevallos to Marques de Casa-Calvo, April 2, 1804, AGI, Papeles De Cuba, Legajo 2356.

  44Humboldt quoted in Narrett, “Geopolitics and Intrigue,” p. 116.

  45Narrett, “Geopolitics and Intrigue,” pp. 117–19.

  46Ibid., p. 121.

  Chapter 8: Sabine River

  1Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America, p. 216.

  2Linklater, An Artist in Treason, p. 244.

  3Narrett, “Geopolitics and Intrigue,” pp. 123–27; Linklater, An Artist in Treason, p. 239.

  4Narrett, Adventurism and Empire, p. 265.

  5McMichael, Atlantic Loyalties, p. 76.

  6This deal is mentioned in Aaron Burr to Andrew Jackson, March 24, 1806, in Daniel Feller (ed.), The Papers of Andrew Jackson Digital Edition (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, Rotunda, 2015–), http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/JKSN-01-02-02-0061 (accessed August 8, 2016).

  7McMichael, Atlantic Loyalties, pp. 152–53.

  8Jaime E. Rodríguez O., The Independence of Spanish America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 53.

  9Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 376.

  10Rodríguez O., The Independence of Spanish America, p. 2; Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 375.

  11For more on this, see D. A. Brading, The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots and the Liberal State, 1492–1866 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).

  12Barbara H. Stein and Stanley J. Stein, Crisis in an Atlantic Empire: Spain and New Spain, 1808–1810 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014), p. 328; Williamson, The Penguin History of Latin America, p. 212; Rodríguez O., The Independence of Spanish America, pp. 53–54.

  13Rodríguez O., The Independence of Spanish America, p. 61; Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 378; Brian R. Hamnett, “Process and Pattern: A Re-Examination of the Ibero-American Independence Movements, 1808–1826,” Journal of Latin American Studies 29, no. 2 (1997): 304.

  14Rodríguez O., The Independence of Spanish America, p. 8; Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 379.

  15Rodríguez O., The Independence of Spanish America, pp. 79–80.

  16Ibid., p. 82; Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 387; Michael P. Costeloe, Response to Revolution: Imperial Spain and the Spanish American Revolutions, 1810–1840 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 173, Costeloe puts the number at thirty people representing the American colonies when the Cortes convened, while the number of total American deputies was put at sixty-three in Brian R. Hamnett, The End of Iberian Rule on the American Continent, 1770–1830 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), p. 194.

  17Stein and Stein, Crisis in an Atlantic Empire, pp. 658–59.

  18Ibid., p. 658.

  19John Lynch, The Spanish American Revolutions, 1808–1826 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1986), p. 299.

  20Williamson, The Penguin History of Latin America, p. 215.

  21Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 375.

  22Costeloe, Response to Revolution, pp. 21–22.

  23James Madison, Third Annual Message, November 5, 1811, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29453 (accessed June 26, 2017); J. C. A. Stagg, Borderlines in Borderlands: James Madison and the Spanish-American Frontier, 1776–1821 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2009), p. 144.

  24Quoted in Jay Sexton, The Monroe Doctrine: Empire and Nation in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2012), p. 37; Vajda Zoltán, “Thomas Jefferson on the Character of an Unfree People: The Case of Spanish America,” American Nineteenth Century History 8, no. 3 (2007): 273–92.

  25Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, April 19, 1809, Founders Online: National Archive, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/03-01-02-0143 (accessed March 15, 2016).

  26See, for instance, Thomas Norman DeWolf, Inheriting the Trade: A Northern Family Confronts Its Legacy as the Largest Slave-Trading Dynasty in U.S. History (Boston: Beacon Press, 2008); Stephen M. Chambers, No God but Gain: The Untold Story of Cuban Slavery, the Monroe Doctrine, and the Making of the United States (London: Verso, 2015).

  27See, for instance, Allan J. Kuethe, Cuba, 1753–1815: Crown, Military, and Society (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986).

  28Gabriel Debien, “Les Colons de Saint-Domingue Réfugiés à Cuba, 1793–1815,” Revista de Indias 13, no. 54–56 (1953): 559–605.

  29McMichael, Atlantic Loyalties, p. 159.

  30Ibid., p. 164.

  31Ibid., p. 165.

  32James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, October 19, 1810, Library of Congress, Manuscript/Mixed Material, https://www.loc.gov/item/mjm016177 (accessed March 16, 2016).

  33McMichael, Atlantic Loyalties, pp. 170–71.

  34Kenneth Wiggins Porter, “Negroes and the East Florida Annexation Plot, 1811–1813,” Journal of Negro History 30, no. 1 (1945): 9.

  35J. C. A. Stagg, “George Matthews and John McKee: Revolutionizing East Florida, Mobile, and Pensacola in 1812,” Florida Historical Quarterly 85, no. 3 (2007): 273.

  36Ibid.

  37Ibid.

  38Ibid., p. 278.

  39Ibid., p. 279.

  40Ibid., p. 284.

  41For a more detailed account of the Patriot War, see James G. Cusick, The Other War of 1812: The Patriot War and the American Invasion of Spanish East Florida (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003).

  42Porter, “Negroes and the East Florida Annexation Plot, 1811–1813,” p. 17.

  43James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, April 24, 1812, Founders Online: National Archives, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/03-04-02-0546 (accessed March 30, 2017).

  44Cusick, The Other War of 1812, pp. 6–7.

  45Barbara Tenenbaum, “The Making of a Fait Accompli: Mexico and the Provincias Internas, 1776–1846,” in Jaime E. Rodríguez O. (ed.), The Evolution of the Mexican Political System (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1993), p. 93.

  46Elizabeth Howard West, “Diary of Jose Bernardo Gutierrez De Lara, 1811–1812,” American Historical Review 34, no. 1 (1928): 57.

  47Ibid., pp. 57–58.

  48Ibid., p. 71.

  49Ibid., p. 73.

  50David E. Narrett, “Liberation and Conquest: John Hamilton Robinson and U.S. Adventurism Toward Mexico, 1806–1819,” Western Historical Quarterly 40, no. 1 (2009): 29; David E. Narrett, “José Bernardo Gutiérrez De Lara: ‘Caudillo’ of the Mexican Republic in Texas,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 106, no. 2 (2002): 208.

  51Narrett, “José Bernardo Gutiérrez
De Lara,” pp. 211–12.

  52Quoted ibid., p. 209.

  53Ibid., p. 194; Raúl Coronado, A World Not to Come: A History of Latino Writing and Print Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2013), pp. 248–50.

  54Quoted in Coronado, A World Not to Come, p. 414; Narrett, “José Bernardo Gutiérrez De Lara,” pp. 214–16.

  55Bradley Folsom, Arredondo: Last Spanish Ruler of Texas and Northeastern New Spain (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2017), pp. 85–86.

  56Andrew J. Torget, Seeds of Empire: Cotton, Slavery and the Transformation of the Texas Borderlands, 1800–1850 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), pp. 32–33.

  57Williamson, The Penguin History of Latin America, p. 214; Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 386.

  58James F. King, “The Colored Castes and American Representation in the Cortes of Cadiz,” Hispanic American Historical Review 33, no. 1 (1953): 57.

  59Jaime E. Rodríguez O., “The Process of Spanish American Independence,” in Holloway, A Companion to Latin American History, p. 198; Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 385.

  60Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 388.

  61Lynch, The Spanish American Revolutions, 1808–1826, p. 296.

  62Quoted in Costeloe, Response to Revolution, p. 21.

  63Quoted ibid., p. 26.

  64Quoted ibid., pp. 34–35.

  65Gregory A. Waselkov, A Conquering Spirit: Fort Mims and the Redstick War of 1813–1814 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2009), see chapter 6; Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767–1821 (New York: Harper & Row, 1977), pp. 188–90.

  66Waselkov, A Conquering Spirit, p. 86.

  67See ibid., chapter 5; Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, p. 191.

  68Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, pp. 193–94.

  69Cusick, The Other War of 1812, p. 301.

  70Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, pp. 206–16.

  71John Armstrong to Andrew Jackson, July 18, 1814, in Feller, The Papers of Andrew Jackson Digital Edition, http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/JKSN-01-03-02-0055 (accessed August 8, 2016); Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, p. 225, note 57.

  72Andrew Jackson to Mateo González Manrique, July 12, 1814, in Feller, The Papers of Andrew Jackson Digital Edition, http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/JKSN-01-03-02-0051 (accessed August 8, 2016).

  73Mateo González Manrique to Andrew Jackson, July 26, 1814, ibid., http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/JKSN-01-03-02-0060 (accessed August 8, 2016).

  74Andrew Jackson to John Armstrong, August 25, 1814, ibid., http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/JKSN-01-03-02-0076 (accessed August 8, 2016).

  75Cusick, The Other War of 1812, p. 303.

  76Andrew Jackson to Mateo González Manrique, November 6, 1814, in Feller, The Papers of Andrew Jackson Digital Edition, http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/JKSN-01-03-02-0115 (accessed August 8, 2016).

  77Mateo González Manrique to Andrew Jackson, November 6, 1814, ibid., http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/JKSN-01-03-02-0116 (accessed August 8, 2016).

  78Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, p. 242.

  79Cusick, The Other War of 1812, p. 299.

  80Claudio Saunt, A New Order of Things (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 279; Allman, Finding Florida, p. 88.

  81Andrew Jackson to Mauricio de Zuñiga, April 23, 1816, in Feller, The Papers of Andrew Jackson Digital Edition, http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/JKSN-01-04-02-0013 (accessed August 8, 2016).

  82Mauricio de Zuñiga to Andrew Jackson, May 26, 1816, ibid., http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/JKSN-01-04-02-0022-0002 (accessed August 8, 2016).

  83Ferdinand Louis Amelung to Andrew Jackson, June 4, 1816, ibid., http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/JKSN-01-04-02-0022-0001 (accessed August 8, 2016).

  84T. Frederick Davis, “MacGregor’s Invasion of Florida, 1817,” Florida Historical Society Quarterly 7, no. 1 (1928): 3.

  85Ibid., p. 8; Caitlin Fitz, Our Sister Republics: The United States in an Age of American Revolutions (New York: Liveright, 2016), p. 110.

  86Davis, “MacGregor’s Invasion of Florida, 1817,” p. 14.

  87Ibid., p. 18.

  88Rafe Blaufarb, “The Western Question: The Geopolitics of Latin American Independence,” American Historical Review 112, no. 3 (2007): 753.

  89Fitz, Our Sister Republics, p. 111.

  90Ibid.

  91Luis de Onís to John Quincy Adams, January 8, 1818, Official Correspondence Between Don Luis de Onis and John Quincy Adams in Relations to the Florida and the Boundaries of Louisiana (London: Effingham Wilson, 1818), pp. 60–61.

  92Ibid.; Fitz, Our Sister Republics, p. 112.

  93John Quincy Adams to Luis de Onís, January 16, 1818, Official Correspondence Between Don Luis de Onis and John Quincy Adams in Relations to the Florida and the Boundaries of Louisiana, p. 64.

  94Andrew Jackson to F. C. Luengo, April 6, 1818, University of West Florida, University Archives and West Florida History Center, Panton, Leslie and Company papers, Series No. 946, Reel 21.

  95Andrew Jackson to James Monroe, January 6, 1818, in Feller, The Papers of Andrew Jackson Digital Edition, http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/JKSN-01-04-02-0096 (accessed August 8, 2016).

  96Andrew Jackson to Headquarters, Division of the South, May 23, 1818, University of West Florida, University Archives and West Florida History Center, Panton, Leslie and Company papers, Series No. 946, Reel 21.

  97Andrew Jackson to Rachel Jackson, June 2, 1818, ibid.

  98Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, p. 364; James Monroe to Andrew Jackson, July 19, 1818, in Feller, The Papers of Andrew Jackson Digital Edition, http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/JKSN-01-04-02-0128 (accessed August 8, 2016).

  99Andrew Jackson to James Monroe, August 19, 1818, ibid., http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/JKSN-01-04-02-0133 (accessed August 8, 2016).

  100Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, pp. 371–74.

  101James Monroe to Andrew Jackson, July 19, 1818, in Feller, The Papers of Andrew Jackson Digital Edition, http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/JKSN-01-04-02-0128 (accessed August 8, 2016).

  102Blaufarb, “The Western Question,” p. 751.

  103Luis De Onís to the Secretary of State, December 12, 1818, University of West Florida, University Archives and West Florida History Center, Panton, Leslie and Company papers, Series No. 946, Reel 21.

  104Cusick, The Other War of 1812, pp. 305–6. For the full text of the treaty, see “Treaty of Amity, Settlement, and Limits Between the United States of America and His Catholic Majesty, 1819,” Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History, and Diplomacy, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1819.asp (accessed June 23, 2017).

  105Rodríguez O., The Independence of Spanish America, p. 194.

  106Ibid., pp. 195–96.

  107Fitz, Our Sister Republics, pp. 4–5.

  108Ibid., p. 163.

  109Ibid., p. 15.

  110Jaime E. Rodríguez O., “We Are Now the True Spaniards”: Sovereignty, Revolution, Independence, and the Emergence of the Federal Republic of Mexico, 1808–1824 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2012), pp. 256–58.

  111Lynch, The Spanish American Revolutions, 1808–1826, p. 322.

  112Romeo Flores Caballero and Jaime E. Rodríguez O. (trans.), Counterrevolution: The Role of Spaniards in the Independence of Mexico, 1804–38 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1974), p. 63.

  113Virginia Guedea, “The Old Colonialism Ends, the New Colonialism Begins,” in Beezley and Meyer, The Oxford History of Mexico, pp. 283–84; Costeloe, Response to Revolution, pp. 49, 191.

  114Christon I. Archer, “Fashioning a New Nation,” in Beezley and Meyer, The Oxford History of Mexico, p. 299; Lynch, The Spanish
American Revolutions, 1808–1826, p. 324.

  115Rodríguez O., “We Are Now the True Spaniards,” p. 322.

  116Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), pp. 222–23.

  117Lewis, The American Union and the Problem of Neighborhood, p. 216.

  118Sexton, The Monroe Doctrine, p. 3; Joseph Smith, The United States and Latin America: A History of American Diplomacy, 1776–2000 (London: Routledge, 2005), p. 15.

  119James Monroe, from President James Monroe’s seventh annual message to Congress, December 2, 1823, USHistory.org: Historic Documents, http://www.ushistory.org/documents/monroe.htm (accessed March 17, 2016).

  120Sexton, The Monroe Doctrine, p. 4.

  121J. Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur and Dennis D. Moore (ed.), Letters from an American Farmer and Other Essays (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2013), p. 307; this essay brought to my attention in Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, pp. 403–4.

  122Thomas Jefferson to Baron von Humboldt, December 6, 1813, Library of Congress: Manuscript/Mixed Material, https://www.loc.gov/item/mtjbib021586 (accessed March 17, 2016).

  Chapter 9: San Antonio de Béxar, Texas

  1José María Sánchez, “A Trip to Texas in 1828,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 29, no. 4 (1926): 271.

  2Ibid.

  3Ibid.

  4Quoted in David J. Weber (ed.), Foreigners in Their Native Land: Historical Roots of the Mexican-Americas (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2003), p. 102.

  5Alexis de Tocqueville, Harvey C. Mansfield, and Delba Winthrop (trans. and eds.), Democracy in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), p. 392.

  6Alan Taylor, “Remaking Americans: Louisiana, Upper Canada, and Texas,” in Juliana Barr and Edward Countryman (eds.), Contested Spaces of Early America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), p. 220.

  7Ibid.

  8Torget, Seeds of Empire, p. 25.

  9More on Long and the expedition against him, ibid., p. 46.

  10Ibid., p. 68.

  11H. W. Brands, Lone Star Nation: The Epic Story of the Battle for Texas Independence (New York: First Anchor Books, 2005), p. 14; Torget, Seeds of Empire, p. 49.