El Norte

by Carrie Gibson

  27 García, “Central American Migration and the Shaping of Refugee Policy,” p. 356.

  28 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, pp. 156–57, 172–75.

  29 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 99.

  30 “Statistical Portrait of Hispanics in the United States,” Pew Research Center Hispanic Trends, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2016/04/19/statistical-portrait-of-hispanics-in-the-united-states-key-charts/ (accessed November 6, 2016); “Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: January 2010, Office of Immigration Statistics, Department of Homeland Security,” February 2011, https://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/publications/ois_ill_pe_2010.pdf (accessed August 29, 2017).

  31 Starr, California: A History, p. 312.

  32 Ibid.

  33 Pérez, Cuba and the United States, p. 269.

  34 Joan Didion, Miami (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987), p. 65.

  35 Milton Weiss, “Letter to the Editor: Pre-Cuban Miami Was a Good Place to Live,” Miami Herald, October 15, 1990.

  36 Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera, p. 75.

  37 Starr, California: A History, p. 315.

  38 Hector Tobar, “Tucson School Board Lifts Ban on Latino Studies Books,” Los Angeles Times, October 25, 2013, http://articles.latimes.com/2013/oct/25/entertainment/la-et-jc-tucson-school-board-latino-studies-books-20131025 (accessed January 19, 2015).

  39 James C. McKinley, “Texas Conservatives Win Curriculum Change,” New York Times, March 12, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/13/education/13texas.html?_r=0 (accessed March 31, 2016); Gail Collins, “How Texas Inflicts Bad Textbooks on Us,” New York Review of Books, June 21, 2012.

  40 Cindy Casares, “A Textbook on Mexican Americans That Gets Their History Wrong? Oh, Texas,” Guardian, May 31, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/may/31/texas-textbook-mexican-american-heritage-public-schools-us-history?CMP=share_btn_fb (accessed November 7, 2016).

  41 U.S. Census 2000: Chapter 8: Language, p. 124, report available at https://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/censusatlas/pdf/8_Language.pdf (accessed November 6, 2016).

  42 Ibid., p. 125.

  43 María de Los Angeles, “¿Qué Pasa, U.S.A.? Gets a Modern Update for the Miami Stage,” Miami New Times, December 18, 2017, http://www.miaminewtimes.com/arts/que-pasa-usa-at-arsht-center-may-17-to-may-19-9903994 (accessed January 20, 2018).

  44 Suarez, Latino Americans, loc. 3408–31.

  45 Sheridan, Arizona: A History, p. 391.

  46 Ibid.

  47 Mora, Making Hispanics, p. 2.

  48 “Measuring Race and Ethnicity Across the Decades: 1790–2010,” United States Census Bureau, http://www.census.gov/population/race/data/MREAD_1790_2010.html (accessed March 28, 2016).

  49 Ibid.

  50 Grace Flores-Hughes, A Tale of Survival: Memoir of an Hispanic Woman (Bloomington, Ind.: Author House, 2011), pp. xviii, 222.

  51 Ibid., p. 226.

  52 Ibid., p. 227.

  53 Ibid.

  54 “Special Report: America’s Hispanics: From Minor to Major: A Suitable Box to Tick,” Economist, March 14, 2015, p. 6.

  55 “Measuring Race and Ethnicity Across the Decades: 1790–2010”; Painter, The History of White People, loc. 6351–65.

  56 Laura E. Gómez, “The Birth of the ‘Hispanic’ Generation: Attitudes of Mexican-American Political Elites Toward the Hispanic Label,” Latin American Perspectives 19, no. 4 (1992): 46; Gómez, Manifest Destinies, p. 150.

  57 “‘Mexican,’ ‘Hispanic,’ ‘Latin American’ Top List of Race Write-Ins on the 2010 Census, Pew Research Center,” http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/04/04/mexican-hispanic-and-latin-american-top-list-of-race-write-ins-on-the-2010-census/ (accessed September 1, 2017).

  58 Mora, Making Hispanics, p. 167. See the 2010 census form at https://www.census.gov/schools/pdf/2010form_info.pdf (accessed November 18, 2016).

  59 Alex Wagner, “The Americans Our Government Won’t Count,” New York Times, April 1, 2018, Opinion, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/30/opinion/sunday/united-states-census.html (accessed April 2, 2018).

  60 Mora, Making Hispanics, pp. 4–5.

  61 “Special Report: America’s Hispanics,” p. 4.

  62 Mora, Making Hispanics, p. 153.

  63 Marilyn Halter, Shopping for Identity: The Marketing of Ethnicity (New York: Schocken Books, 2000), p. 51.

  64 Arellano, Taco USA, p. 90.

  65 Ibid., p. 93.

  66 David E. Hayes-Bautista, Cinco de Mayo: An American Tradition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), chapters 3 and 6.

  67 Frances Negrón-Muntaner, Chelsea Abbas, Luis Figueroa, and Samuel Robson, The Latino Media Gap: A Report on the State of Latinos in U.S. Media, Columbia University, 2014, p. 1.

  68 “Hollywood Fails to Represent U.S. Ethnic Diversity, Says Study,” theguardian.com, August 5, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/aug/05/hollywood-fails-to-represent-ethnic-diversity-study-usc (accessed January 20, 2015).

  Chapter 16: Tucson, Arizona

  1 See the full text, for instance, at https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2015/06/16/full-text-donald-trump-announces-a-presidential-bid/ (accessed January 21, 2018).

  2 Ioan Grillo, “Why Did Peña Nieto Invite Trump to Mexico?” New York Times, September 1, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/02/opinion/why-did-pena-nieto-invite-trump-to-mexico.html (accessed November 11, 2016).

  3 Pew Research Center Hispanic Trends, “Latino Voters in the 2012 Election,” http://www.pewhispanic.org/2012/11/07/latino-voters-in-the-2012-election/ (accessed January 19, 2015).

  4 About SVREP, http://svrep.org/about_svrep.php (accessed September 1, 2017).

  5 Jeremy Schwartz and Dan Hill, “Silent Majority: Texas’ Booming Hispanic Population Deeply Underrepresented in Local Politics,” Austin American-Statesman, October 21, 2016, http://projects.statesman.com/news/latino-representation/index.html (accessed November 7, 2016); Pew Research Center Hispanic Trends: “Latinos in the 2016 Election: Texas,” http://www.pewhispanic.org/fact-sheet/latinos-in-the-2016-election-texas/ (accessed August 29, 2017).

  6 “The Status of Latinos in California: An Analysis of the Growing Latino Population, Voting Trends and Elected Representation, 2015,” http://leadershipcaliforniainstitute.org/sites/all/files/Status%20of%20Latinos%20Report%20Preview.pdf. Also http://latinocaucus.legislature.ca.gov/news/2015-07-09-report-despite-recent-gains-california-latinos-continue-be-underrepresented-every-le (accessed January 21, 2018).

  7 Adam Nagourney and Jennifer Medina, “This City Is 78% Latino, and the Face of a New California,” New York Times, October 11, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/12/us/california-latino-voters.html?hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&clickSource=story-heading&module=second-colum&_r=0 (accessed November 7, 2016).

  8 Rafael Bernal, “Latino Representation in Congress Record High, but Far from Parity,” Hill, September 14, 2017, http://thehill.com/latino/350673-latino-representation-in-congress-at-record-high-but-far-from-parity (accessed January 21, 2018).

  9 González, Harvest of Empire, p. 256; Josefina Zoraida Vázquez and Lorenzo Meyer, México frente a Estados Unidos: un ensayo histórico, 1776–2000 (Mexico, D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2013), p. 215.

  10 González, Harvest of Empire, p. 257.

  11 Joseph and Buchenau, Mexico’s Once and Future Revolution, p. 181.

  12 Zoraida Vázquez and Meyer, México frente a Estados Unidos, p. 234.

  13 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 123.

  14 González, Harvest of Empire, p. 266.

  15 Ibid., p. 269.

  16 Ibid., p. 258; Henderson, Beyond Borders, pp. 93–94.

  17 Mark Weisbrot, Stephan Lefebvre, and Joseph Sammut, “Did NAFTA Help Mexico? An Assessment After 20 Years,” Center for Economic and Policy Research (2014), p. 1.

  18 Azam Ahmed and Elisabeth Malkin, “Mexicans Are the Nafta Winners? It’s News to Them,” New York Times, January 4, 2017, https://www
.nytimes.com/2017/01/04/world/americas/mexico-donald-trump-nafta.html?hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&clickSource=story-heading&mod&_r=0 (accessed September 1, 2017).

  19 Weisbrot et al., “Did NAFTA Help Mexico?” p. 1.

  20 “NAFTA 20 Years Later: PIIE Briefing No 14-3,” Peterson Institute for International Economics (2014), p. 4.

  21 Shawn Donnan, “Renegotiating Nafta: 5 Points to Keep in Mind,” Financial Times, January 1, 2017, https://www.ft.com/content/4c1594c6-e18d-11e6-8405-9e5580d6e5fb (accessed September 1, 2017).

  22 González, Harvest of Empire, p. 200.

  23 Ibid., p. 201.

  24 Ibid., p. 203.

  25 Nora Caplan-Bricker, “Who’s the Real Deporter-in-Chief: Bush or Obama?” New Republic, April 18, 2014, https://newrepublic.com/article/117412/deportations-under-obama-vs-bush-who-deported-more-immigrants (accessed March 29, 2016); Brian Bennett, “High Deportation Figures Are Misleading.” LA Times, April 1, 2014, http://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-obama-deportations-20140402-story.html (accessed March 27, 2018).

  26 Julia Preston and Randal C. Archibold, “U.S. Moves to Stop Surge in Illegal Immigration,” New York Times, June 21, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/21/us/us-plans-to-step-up-detention-and-deportation-of-migrants.html?_r=1&asset-Type=nyt_now (accessed January 19, 2015).

  27 Richard Fausset and Ken Belson, “Faces of an Immigration System Overwhelmed by Women and Children,” New York Times, June 6, 2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/06/us/faces-of-an-immigration-system-overwhelmed-by-women-and-children.html (accessed January 21, 2018).

  28 “Southwest Border Unaccompanied Alien Children,” United States Customs and Border Protection, http://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/stats/southwest-border-unaccompanied-children/fy-2015 (accessed January 19, 2015).

  29 Preston and Archibold, “U.S. Moves to Stop Surge in Illegal Immigration.”

  30 “Transnational Organized Crime in Central America and the Caribbean,” United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2012, https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/Studies/TOC_Central_America_and_the_Caribbean_english.pdf (accessed January 20, 2015).

  31 Editorial, “America’s Test at the Border,” New York Times, July 21, 2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/21/opinion/Americas-Test-Children-at-the-Border.html (accessed January 21, 2018).

  32 Editorial, “A Tale of Two Migration Flows,” New York Times, August 1, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/01/opinion/a-tale-of-two-migration-flows.html; U.S. Customs and Border Protection, https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/stats/southwest-border-unaccompanied-children/fy-2016 (accessed November 12, 2016).

  33 “A Tale of Two Migration Flows”; Kirk Semple, “Fleeing Gangs, Central American Families Surge Toward U.S.” New York Times, November 12, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/13/world/americas/fleeing-gangs-central-american-families-surge-toward-us.html?_r=0 (accessed November 13, 2016). For FY 2017 U.S. Border Patrol figures, see https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/assets/documents/2017-Dec/USBP%20Stats%20FY2017%20sector%20profile.pdf (accessed April 4, 2018).

  34 Patrick J. McDonnell, “Mexico Rejects U.S. Plan to Deport Central Americans to Mexico,” Los Angeles Times, February 24, 2017, http://www.latimes.com/politics/washington/la-na-essential-washington-updates-mexico-rejects-u-s-plan-to-deport-1487988401-htmlstory.html (accessed September 1, 2017).

  35 Colleen Shalby, “Parents Ask: What Happens to My Child If I’m Deported?” Los Angeles Times, March 22, 2017, http://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-questions-trump-immigration-20170322-htmlstory.html (accessed September 1, 2017).

  36 Sabrina Siddiqui and Oliver Laughland, “Trump Plans to Greatly Expand Number of Immigrants Targeted for Deportation,” Guardian, February 21, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/feb/21/donald-trump-immigration-deportation-guidelines-homeland-security (accessed September 1, 2017).

  37 Elliot Spagat, “Immigration Judges to Be Sent to Border Detention Centers,” Associated Press, March 18, 2017, https://apnews.com/5b824828b2d647e589c004afd43ec858/immigration-judges-be-sent-border-detention-centers (accessed September 1, 2017).

  38 Miriam Jordan, “Trump Administration Says That Nearly 200,000 Salvadorans Must Leave,” New York Times, January 8, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/08/us/salvadorans-tps-end.html (accessed March 27, 2018.Miriam Jordan and Manny Fernandez. “Judge Rejects Long Detentions of Migrant Families, Dealing Trump Another Setback.” New York Times, July 9, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/09/us/migrants-family-separation-reunification.html (accessed July 20, 2018).

  39 María DeGuzmán, Spain’s Long Shadow: The Black Legend, Off-Whiteness, and Anglo-American Empire (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 2005), p. xxvii.

  40 Pew Research Center, “5 Facts About Illegal Immigration in the U.S.,” April 27, 2017, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/27/5-facts-about-illegal-immigration-in-the-u-s/ (accessed September 1, 2017).

  41 Janet Adamy and Paul Overberg, “Immigration Source Shifts to Asia from Mexico,” Wall Street Journal, September 7, 2016, http://www.wsj.com/articles/immigration-source-shifts-to-asia-from-mexico-1473205576 (accessed November 12, 2016).

  42 Ibid.

  43 Ana Gonzalez-Barrera, “More Mexicans Leaving Than Coming to the U.S.,” Pew Research Center, November 19, 2015, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2015/11/19/more-mexicans-leaving-than-coming-to-the-u-s/ (accessed March 29, 2016).

  44 Jens Manuel Krogstad, “Key Facts About How the U.S. Hispanic Population Is Changing,” Pew Research Center, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/09/08/key-facts-about-how-the-u-s-hispanic-population-is-changing/(accessed September 1, 2017).

  45 Ibid.

  46 See, for instance, Michael Deibert, In the Shadow of Saint Death: The Gulf Cartel and the Price of America’s Drug War in Mexico (Guilford, Conn.: Lyons Press, 2014), p. 233.

  47 Christopher Ingraham, “Legal Marijuana Is Finally Doing What the Drug War Couldn’t,” Washington Post, March 3, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/03/03/legal-marijuana-is-finally-doing-what-the-drug-war-couldnt/ (accessed November 12, 2016). FY 2016 figures at https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/assets/documents/2017-Jan/USBP%20Stats%20FY2016%20sector%20profile.pdf.

  48 Ibid.

  49 See Department of State: Merida Initiative, https://www.state.gov/j/inl/merida/(accessed November 13, 2016).

  50 Harel Shapira, Waiting for José: The Minutemen’s Pursuit of America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2013), p. 3; Foley, Mexicans in the Making of America, ch 8.

  51 Shapira, Waiting for José, p. 13.

  52 Ibid., p. 2.

  53 James Marcus, “Easy Chair: Beyond a Boundary,” Harper’s, June 2014, p. 5.

  54 Sheridan, Arizona: A History, p. 392.

  55 Ibid.

  56 Mari Herreras, “All Souls All Community,” Tucson Weekly, November 6–12, 2014, p. 11.

  57 Jeremy Harding, “The Deaths Map,” London Review of Books, October 20, 2011, pp. 7–13.

  58 See http://www.humaneborders.org/wp-content/uploads/deathpostercumulative_letter16.pdf. Also, the charity provides a searchable map for deceased migrants at http://www.humaneborders.info/app/map.asp.

  59 Miriam Jordan, “Desert Castaways Get Second Life in Art Exhibition,” Wall Street Journal, January 17, 2008.

  60 Marcus, “Easy Chair,” p. 5; U.S. Border Patrol, Sector Profile, FY 2015, CBP FY15 Border Security Report: Department of Homeland Security, December 22, 2015, p. 3, https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/documents/USBP%20Stats%20FY2015%20sector%20profile.pdf (accessed March 29, 2016).

  61 Bob Davis, “The Thorny Economics of Illegal Immigration,” Wall Street Journal, February 9, 2016, online edition, http://www.wsj.com/articles/the-thorny-economics-of-illegal-immigration-1454984443 (accessed March 29, 2016); also see http://www.migrationpolicy.org/data/unauthorized-immigrant-population/state/AZ.

  62 Sheridan, Arizona: A History, p. 394.

  63 Harding, “The Deaths Map,” pp. 7–13; Jude Joffe-Block, “Ahead of Arizona Primary, Busi
ness Community Fears Trump Will Inspire Backlash,” NPR, March 16, 2016, http://www.npr.org/2016/03/19/471000171/ahead-of-arizona-primary-business-community-fears-trump-will-inspire-backlash (accessed September 1, 2017).

  64 Julie Hirschfeld Davis and Maggie Haberman, “Trump Pardons Joe Arpaio, Who Became Face of Crackdown on Illegal Immigration,” New York Times, August 25, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/25/us/politics/joe-arpaio-trump-pardon-sheriff-arizona.html (accessed September 1, 2017).

  65 William Finnegan, “Sheriff Joe,” New Yorker, July 20, 2009, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/07/20/sheriff-joe (accessed January 19, 2015).

  66 Ibid.

  67 Jaques Billeaud, “Taxpayer Costs of Sheriff Joe Arpaio’s Profiling Case: Another $13M on Top of $41M,” Associated Press, May 12, 2016, https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/phoenix/2016/05/12/taxpayer-costs-sheriff-joe-arpaios-profiling-case-another-13m-top-41m/84293950/ (accessed September 1, 2017).

  68 Julia Preston, “Tension Simmers as Cubans Breeze Across U.S. Border,” New York Times, February 12, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/13/us/as-cubans-and-central-americans-enter-us-the-welcomes-vary.html. (accessed April 27, 2018); Tom Dart, “Cuban Immigrants Face Resentment in Texas over ‘Preferential Treatment,’” Guardian, March 14, 2016, http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/mar/14/cuban-immigrants-texas-resentment-us-policy (accessed March 29, 2016).

  69 González, Harvest of Empire, p. 281.

  70 Ibid.

  71 Ibid., pp. 282–84.

  72 Lizette Alvarez, “Economy and Crime Spur New Puerto Rican Exodus,” New York Times, February 9, 2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/09/us/economy-and-crime-spur-new-puerto-rican-exodus.html (accessed January 21, 2018).

  73 Mary Williams Walsh, “A Surreal Life on the Precipice in Puerto Rico,” New York Times, August 6, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/07/business/dealbook/life-in-the-miasma-of-puerto-ricos-debt.html (accessed November 15, 2016).

  74 Mary Williams Walsh, “Puerto Rico Declares a Form of Bankruptcy,” New York Times, May 2, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/03/business/dealbook/puerto-rico-debt.html?hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&clickSource=story-heading&module=first-column-region®ion=top-news&WT.nav=top-news (accessed September 1, 2017).