American Empire

by Joshua Freeman

  For the politics of race in northern cities, see John T. McGreevy, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century North (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Kenneth D. Durr, Behind the Backlash: White Working-Class Politics in Baltimore, 1940–1980 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, “The Politics of the Great Society,” in The Great Society and the High Tide of Liberalism, ed. Milkis and Mileur.

  For the 1966 election, see John Patrick Diggins, Ronald Reagan: Fate, Freedom, and the Making of History (New York, Norton, 2007); Alan Draper, “Labor and the 1966 Elections,” Labor History 30 (Winter 1989): 76–92.

  Chapter 9: Apocalypse Now

  For the events surrounding the dedication of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, see contemporary coverage in the Washington Post; United Press International; Associated Press; Facts on File World News Digest.

  For the Vietnam War in general, see U.S. Department of Defense, The Pentagon Papers: The Defense Department History of United States Decisionmaking on Vietnam, Senator Gravel Edition, vols. 1–5 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971–72); George C. Herring, America’s Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950–1975, 4th ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2002); James Pickney Harrison, The Endless War: Fifty Years of Struggle in Vietnam (New York: Free Press, 1982); Gabriel Kolko, Anatomy of a War: Vietnam, the United States, and the Modern Historical Experience (New York: Pantheon, 1985); Loren Baritz, Backfire: A History of How American Culture Led Us into Vietnam and Made Us Fight the Way We Did (New York: William Morrow, 1985); James William Gibson, The Perfect War: Technowar in Vietnam (Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1986); Neil Sheehan, A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam (New York: Random House, 1988); Tom Mangold and John Penycate, The Tunnels of Cu Chi (New York: Random House, 1985); Michael Herr, Dispatches (New York: Knopf, 1977); David Harris, Our War: What We Did in Vietnam and What It Did to Us (New York: Crown, 1996); Robert S. McNamara, James G. Blight, and Robert K. Brigham, Argument Without End: In Search of Answers to the Vietnam Tragedy (New York: PublicAffairs, 1999); Daniel Ellsberg, Secrets: A Memoir of Vietnam and the Pentagon Papers (New York: Viking, 2002); U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964–1968, vol. 27, Mainland Southeast Asia; Regional Affairs (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2000).

  For shipping to Vietnam, see Marc Levinson, The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006).

  For the makeup of the American armed services in Vietnam, see Lawrence M. Baskir and William A. Strauss, Chance and Circumstance: The Draft, the War, and the Vietnam Generation (New York: Knopf, 1978); Christian G. Appy, Working-Class War: American Combat Soldiers and Vietnam (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993).

  For the press and Vietnam, see David Halberstam, The Making of a Quagmire (New York: Random House, 1965); William Prochnau, Once Upon a Distant War (New York: Times Books, 1995).

  For the Supreme Court and Vietnam, see Michal R. Belknap, “The Warren Court and the Vietnam War: The Limits of Legal Liberalism,” Georgia Law Review 33 (Fall 1998): 65–154.

  For the antiwar movement, see Thomas Powers, Vietnam: The War at Home; Vietnam and the American People, 1964–1968 (New York: Grossman, 1973); Melvin Small, Johnson, Nixon, and the Doves (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1988); Melvin Small, Antiwarriors: The Vietnam War and the Battle for America’s Hearts and Minds (Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 2002); Michael S. Foley, Confronting the War Machine: Draft Resistance During the Vietnam War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Richard Lee Howell, “Harvard University and the Indochina War: From the Takeover of University Hall in the Spring of 1969 Through the Aftermath of the Invasion of Cambodia and the Kent State Killings in the Spring of 1970” (PhD dissertation, Michigan State University, 1987).

  For CIA and FBI involvement with domestic political groups, see Frances Stoner Saunders, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: New Press, 2000); J. Angus Johnston, “The United States National Student Association: Democracy, Activism, and the Idea of the Student, 1947–1978” (PhD dissertation, City University of New York, 2009); David Cunningham, There’s Something Happening Here: The New Left, the Klan, and FBI Counterintelligence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).

  For the Supreme Court, see Lucas A. Powe Jr., The Warren Court and American Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000); Peter Wallenstein, Tell the Court I Love My Wife: Race, Marriage, and the Law—an American History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002).

  For crime, riots, and law and order, see Bruce J. Cohen, ed., Crime in America: Perspectives on Criminal and Delinquent Behavior (Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock, 1970); President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society: A Report (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967); Michael W. Flamm, “The Politics of ‘Law and Order,’” in The Conservative Sixties, ed. David Farber and Jeff Roche (New York: Peter Lang, 2003); National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (New York: Bantam, 1968).

  For the economic impact of the Vietnam War, see Michael Edelstein, “War and the American Economy in the Twentieth Century,” in The Cambridge Economic History of the United States, vol. 3, The Twentieth Century, ed. Stanley L. Engerman and Robert E. Gallman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Robert M. Collins, “The Economic Crisis of 1968 and the Waning of the ‘American Century,’” American Historical Review 101 (April 1996): 396–422; Julian E. Zelizer, Taxing America: Wilbur D. Mills, Congress, and the State, 1945–1975 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).

  For the Dump Johnson movement, see William H. Chafe, Never Stop Running: Allard Lowenstein and the Struggle to Save American Liberalism (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Penetration Research Inc., “A Survey of the Political Climate in Wisconsin–March 1, 1968” (Larry Berman Collection, Vietnam Archive, Texas Tech University).

  For Black Power, see Stokely Carmichael and Charles Hamilton, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Random House, 1967); Peniel E. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York: Henry Holt, 2006).

  For riots after King’s death, see Irving Bernstein, Guns or Butter: The Presidency of Lyndon Johnson (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996); Adam Cohen and Elizabeth Taylor, American Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley: His Battle for Chicago and the Nation (Boston: Little, Brown, 2000); Theo Lippman Jr., Spiro Agnew’s America (New York: Norton, 1972).

  For student protest internationally, see Ronald Fraser, ed., 1968: A Student Generation in Revolt (New York: Pantheon, 1988); Mark Kurlansky, 1968: The Year That Rocked the World (New York: Ballantine, 2004); George Katsiaficas, The Imagination of the New Left: A Global Analysis of 1968 (Boston: South End Press, 1987).

  For the ideological underpinnings of the 1968 election, see Garry Wills, Nixon Agonistes: The Crisis of the Self-Made Man (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Dan T. Carter, The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995); William H. Chafe, The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II, 5th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).

  Chapter 10: Sixties to Seventies, Dreams to Nightmares

  For civil rights struggles after 1968, see Cass R. Sunstein, “What the Civil Rights Movement Was and Wasn’t,” and Anita Lafrance Allen, “The Half-Life of Integration,” in Reassessing the Sixties: Debating the Political and Cultural Legacy, ed. Stephen Macedo (New York: Norton, 1997); James T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); Dean J. Kotlow
ski, Nixon’s Civil Rights: Politics, Principle, and Policy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001); Jerome C. Hafter and Peter M. Hoffman, “Segregation Academies and State Action,” Yale Law Journal 82 (June 1973): 1436–61; J. Anthony Lukas, Common Ground: A Turbulent Decade in the Lives of Three American Families (New York: Knopf, 1985); Ronald P. Formisano, Boston Against Busing: Race, Class, and Ethnicity in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991); Jerald E. Podair, The Strike That Changed New York: Blacks, Whites, and the Ocean Hill–Brownsville Crisis (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002).

  For Black Power movements, see Peniel E. Joseph, Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York: Henry Holt, 2006); Jeanne Theoharis and Komozi Woodard, eds., Freedom North: Black Freedom Struggles Outside the South, 1940–1980 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003); Bobby Seale, Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton (New York: Random House, 1970); Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman’s Story (New York: Pantheon, 1992).

  For African American officeholding, see David R. Colburn and Jeffrey S. Adler, eds., African-American Mayors: Race, Politics, and the American City (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001); Clyde Woods, Development Arrested: The Blues and Plantation Power in the Mississippi Delta (London: Verso, 1998); Adolph Reed Jr., Stirrings in the Jug: Black Politics in the Post-Segregation Era (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999).

  For Mexican American activism, see Cletus E. Daniel, “Cesar Chavez and the Unionization of California Farm Workers,” in Labor Leaders in America, ed. Melvyn Dubofsky and Warren Van Tine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Lorena Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí! ¡Guerra No!: Chicano Protest and Patriotism During the Viet Nam War Era (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005).

  For the Young Lords, see Johanna L. del C. Fernandez, “Radicals in the Late 1960s: A History of the Young Lords Party in New York City, 1969–1974” (PhD dissertation, Columbia University, 2004); Miguel Melendez, We Took the Streets: Fighting for Latino Rights with the Young Lords (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2003).

  For the women’s movement, see Jo Freeman, The Politics of Women’s Liberation: A Case Study of an Emerging Social Movement and Its Relation to the Policy Process (New York: McKay, 1975); Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women’s Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Knopf, 1979); Alice Echols, Daring to be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967–1975 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989); Ruth Rosen, The World Split Open: How the Modern Women’s Movement Changed America (New York: Viking, 2000); Kathleen M. Barry, Femininity in Flight: A History of Flight Attendants (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007); Carol Giardina, Freedom for Women: Forging the Women’s Liberation Movement, 1953–1970 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2010); Robin Morgan, ed., Sisterhood Is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings from the Women’s Liberation Movement (New York: Random House, 1970); Rosalyn Baxandall and Linda Gordon, eds., Dear Sisters: Dispatches from the Women’s Liberation Movement (New York: Basic Books, 2000); Rosalind Rosenberg, Divided Lives: American Women in the Twentieth Century (New York: Hill & Wang, 1992).

  For the gay movement, see Martin Duberman, Stonewall (New York: Plume, 1993); Marcia Gallo, Different Daughters: A History of the Daughters of Bilitis and the Rise of the Lesbian Rights Movement (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2006); Jeff Kisseloff, Generation on Fire: Voices of Protest from the 1960s: An Oral History (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2007).

  For rights consciousness, see Michael Schudson, The Good Citizen: A History of American Civil Life (New York: Free Press, 1998); Martha Minow, “Whatever Happened to Children’s Rights?,” in Reassessing the Sixties, ed. Macedo; Kevin M. Krause, White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Modern Conservatism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005); Eric Foner, The Story of American Freedom (New York: Norton, 1998).

  For welfare reform, see James T. Patterson, America’s Struggle Against Poverty, 1900–1985 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986); Premilla Nadasen, Welfare Warriors: The Welfare Rights Movement in the United States (New York: Routledge, 2005).

  For OSHA, see Thomas O. McGarity and Sidney A. Shapiro, Workers at Risk: The Failed Promise of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1993); Les Leopold, The Man Who Hated Work and Loved Labor: The Life and Times of Tony Mazzocchi (White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green, 2007); Nelson Lichtenstein, State of the Union: A Century of American Labor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002).

  For workplace discrimination, see Nancy MacLean, Freedom Is Not Enough: The Opening of the American Workplace (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006); Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Race, Economic Policy, and the Decline of Liberalism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); David H. Golland, Constructing Affirmative Action: The Struggle for Equal Employment Opportunity (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2011).

  For bilingual education, see Gareth Davies, “The Great Society After Johnson: The Case of Bilingual Education,” Journal of American History 88 (March 2002): 1405–29.

  For international economic issues, see Judith Stein, Pivotal Decade: How the United States Traded Factories for Finance in the Seventies (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010); Allen J. Matusow, Nixon’s Economy: Booms, Busts, Dollars, and Votes (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1998).

  For Nixon’s foreign policy, see Joan Hoff, Nixon Reconsidered (New York: Basic Books, 1994); Jeremi Suri, Henry Kissinger and the American Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007); Jeffrey Kimball, Nixon’s Vietnam War (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1998); Larry Berman, No Peace, No Honor: Nixon, Kissinger, and Betrayal in Vietnam (New York: Free Press, 2001).

  For antiwar protest, see George Katsiaficas, The Imagination of the New Left: A Global Analysis of 1968 (Boston: South End, 1987); Rick Perlstein, Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America (New York: Scribner, 2008); Rusty L. Monhollon, “This Is America?”: The Sixties in Lawrence, Kansas (New York: Palgrave Macmilla, 2002).

  For labor, see Kim Moody, An Injury to All: The Decline of American Unionism (London: Verso, 1988); Work in America: Report of a Special Task Force to the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1973); Edmund F. Wehrle, Between a River and a Mountain: The AFL-CIO and the Vietnam War (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005).

  Chapter 11: The End of the American Century

  For Watergate, see Stanley I. Kutler, The Wars of Watergate: The Last Crisis of Richard Nixon (New York: Knopf, 1990); John W. Dean, Blind Ambition: The White House Years (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1976); Jeb Stuart Magruder, An American Life: One Man’s Road to Watergate (New York: Atheneum, 1974); H. R. Haldeman, The Haldeman Diaries: Inside the Nixon White House (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1994); Katharine Graham, Personal History (New York: Knopf, 1997); Bob Woodward, The Secret Man: The Story of Watergate’s Deep Throat (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005); Richard M. Nixon, In the Arena: A Memoir of Victory, Defeat, and Renewal (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990).

  For the FBI harassment of Martin Luther King Jr., see David J. Garrow, The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr.: From “Solo” to Memphis (New York: Norton, 1981).

  For postwar Vietnam, see Gabriel Kolko, Vietnam: Anatomy of a Peace (London: Routledge, 1997).

  Chapter 12: The Landscape of Decline

  For the landscape, see Thomas R. Vale and Geraldine R. Vale, U.S. 40 Today: Thirty Years of Landscape Change in America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983); U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, U.S. Forest Facts and Historical Trends (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, 2001).

  For the Rust Belt, see Joel Garreau, The Nine Nations of North America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1981); J
oshua B. Freeman, “Seeing It Through: New York in the 1970s,” in New York 400, ed. John Thorn (Philadelphia: Running Press, 2009); Alfred Kazin, Alfred Kazin’s Journals, selected and edited by Richard M. Cook (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011); John T. Cumbler, A Social History of Economic Decline: Business, Politics, and Work in Trenton (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989); Russell F. Weigley, ed., Philadelphia: A 300-Year History (New York: Norton, 1982); Jon C. Teaford, Cities of the Heartland: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Midwest (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Margaret Pugh O’Mara, “Uncovering the City in the Suburb: Cold War Politics, Scientific Elites, and High-Tech Spaces,” in The New Suburban History, ed. Kevin M. Kruse and Thomas J. Sugrue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006); Paul R. Josephson, Motorized Obsessions: Life, Liberty, and the Small-Bore Engine (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007).

  For the Sun Belt, see Bruce Schulman, The Seventies: The Great Shift in American Culture, Society, and Politics (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo, 2001); Kirkpatrick Sale, Power Shift: The Rise of the Southern Rim and Its Challenge to the Eastern Establishment (New York: Random House, 1975); Richard M. Bernard and Bradley R. Rice, eds., Sunbelt Cities: Politics and Growth Since World War II (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1983); Barry Bluestone and Bennett Harrison, The Deindustrialization of America: Plant Closing, Community Abandonment, and the Dismantling of Basic Industry (New York: Basic Books, 1982); Chad Berry, Southern Migrants, Northern Exiles (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000).

  For cultural developments, see Craig Werner, A Change Is Gonna Come: Music, Race, and the Soul of America (New York: Penguin, 1999); Edward Berkowitz, Something Happened: A Political and Cultural Overview of the Seventies (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006); Philip Jenkins, Decade of Nightmares: The End of the Sixties and the Making of Eighties America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006); George Leonard and Robert Leonard, “Sha Na Na and the Woodstock Generation,” Columbia College Today (Spring–Summer 1989): 28–31; Tom Wolfe, Mauve Gloves and Madmen, Clutter and Vine (New York: Macmillan, 1976); David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Cambridge, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 1990); Lester C. Thurow, The Zero-Sum Society: Distribution and the Possibilities for Economic Change (New York: Penguin, 1980).